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496V 


Wage  Bargaining  on  the  Vessels  of 
the  Great  Lakes 


HENRY  ELMER  HOAGLAND 


PREFACE 

This  study  is  an  attempt  to  trace  the  development  of  methods 
of  wage  bargaining  in  the  transportation  industry  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  Beginning  as  an  industry  in  which  both  profits  and 
wages  were  highly  speculative,  lake  traffic  has  been  so  modified 
that  the  returns  to  both  capital  and  labor  have  become  standard- 
ized. This  has  been  made  possible  by  the  ever-increasing  con- 
centration of  control  of  physical  property  and  by  the  unification 
of  the  interests  of  wage  earners.  In  the  early  days  one  man 
owned  but  one  vessel  and  carried  freight  for  other  men  each  of 
whom  owned  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  supply  of  such  freight. 
At  present  one  corporation  controls  —  through  ownership  and 
charters  —  a  majority  of  the  available  tonnage,  and  in  addition 
owns  an  even  greater  majority  of  the  freight  to  be  shipped. 
Formerly  the  wage  earner  identified  his  interest  with  that  of  his 
employer.  Later  he  banded  with  his  fellow  workers  into  unions 
for  the  purpose  of  bargaining  with  the  employers.  More  re- 
cently he  has  had  the  terms  of  his  labor  contract  dictated  by  the 
same  corporation  which  dominates  the  management  of  the  phy- 
sical property  involved  in  lake  traffic. 

Much  of  the  information  was  collected  while  the  writer  was 
employed  as  special  investigator  for  the  United  States  Commis- 
sion on  Industrial  Relations.  Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made 
to  representatives  of  employers'  associations,  to  union  officials,  to 
government  agents  connected  with  lake  traffic,  and  to  the  many 
individuals  who  have  assisted  in  furnishing  the  background  of 
facts  from  which  to  interpret  labor  relations  on  lake  vessels. 
From  the  nature  of  the  problem  investigated,  much  of  the  testi- 
mony obtained  from  interested  parties  was  necessarily  contradic- 
tory. For  this  reason  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid  reliance  upon 
oral  statements.  Reference  has  been  made  to  published  records 
wherever  possible.  Throughout  the  entire  investigation  the  writ- 
er was  impressed  by  the  desire  of  all  parties  interested  in  lake 
traffic  to  have  the  subject  of  labor  relations  on  lake  vessels  fully 
and  fairly  presented.  It  is  his  earnest  hope  that  this  desire  has 
been  satisfied  in  this  study. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  his  colleagues,  Prof.  E.  L.  Bogart, 
for  suggestions  concerning  the  form  of  presentation  of  the  mate- 
rial in  this  study,  and  Dr.  M.  H.  Hunter,  for  assistance  in  read- 
ing proof.  H.  E.  HOAGLAND 

Urbana,  Illinois 
October,  1917 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB  I 
BEGINNINGS  OF  ORGANIZATION 9 

CHAPTEB  II 
GROWING  CONCENTRATION 23 

CHAPTER  III 
TRADE  AGREEMENTS 37 

CHAPTER  IV 
DISRUPTION  OF  THE  UNIONS .          61 

CHAPTER  V 
OPEN  SHOP 84 

APPENDICES 

A.  —  WAGE  BARGAINING  ON  LAKE  ERIE  DOCKS 103 

B.  —  GRAIN  HANDLERS  '  AGREEMENTS 110 

0.  —  WAGE  BARGAINING  IN  THE  LUMBER  CARRYING  INDUSTRY    .  116 


CHAPTER  I 
BEGINNINGS  OF  ORGANIZATION 

Previous  to  1840  nearly  all  traffic  on  the  Great  Lakes  was 
from  the  East  to  the  West  to  supply  the  needs  of  a  new  country. 
Earlier  than  this  the  chief  traffic  eastward  was  in  grain  and  as 
late  as  1836  the  total  receipts  of  grain  at  Buffalo  were  only  a 
half  million  bushels.1  This  came  largely  from  Ohio  ports.  The 
first  grain  shipped  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo,  a  few  bags  of  wheat, 
was  sent  in  1831. 2  By  1840  the  total  traffic  in  grain  from 
Chicago  to  Buffalo  was  only  a  few  thousand  bushels.  From  then 
on,  however,  grain  shipments  increased  rapidly,  until  in  1846 
Buffalo  received  six  and  a  half  million  bushels  from  Ohio  and 
other  western  states.3 

The  boats  which  had  supplied  the  west-bound  traffic  were  built 
for  miscellaneous  freight  and  passenger  service.  The  east-bound 
traffic  in  grain  brought  forth  in  1850  the  first  bulk  freighter,  a 
small  sail-boat  capable  of  carrying  about  13,000  bushels  of 
grain.*  Relatively  few  west-bound  boats  were  built  for  con- 
tinuous service,  their  chief  purpose  being  to  take  their  cargoes 
to  the  new  West,  much  as  the  arks  were  used  on  the  Ohio  River 
or  the  prairie  schooners  were  used  in  land  transportation.  Once 
at  their  destination  the  early  west-bound  boats  were  broken  up, 
the  materials  of  which  they  were  made  were  used  for  other  pur- 
poses and  the  men  who  operated  them  entered  other  occupations. 

1  Marine  Eeview,  May  30,  1907,  p.  22. 

2  Ibid.,  Feb.  22,  1906,  p.  15. 
s  Ibid.,  May  30,  1907,  p.  22. 

*  Marine  Becord,  Aug.  25,  1898,  p.  6.  The  Marine  Becord  and  the 
Marine  Review  were  both  trade  journals,  patronized  by  and  representing 
lake  shipping  interests.  The  former  was-  established  in  1878  and  the 
latter  in  1890.  Both  were  published  at  Cleveland.  On  August  14,  1902, 
they  were  consolidated  and  for  a  year  and  four  months  appeared  under 
the  name  of  Marine  Eeview  and  Marine  Becord.  In  January,  1904,  the 
name  was  changed  to  Marine  Beview. 


10  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [160 

The  new  grain  freighters  changed  the  character  of  lake  traffic 
and  created  a  demand  for  a  class  of  men  to  follow  lake  sailing  as 
a  vocation.  A  typical  crew  of  these  early  days  consisted  of  a 
captain,  two  mates,  twelve  sailors,  a  cook  and  a  royal  boy.5 

The  captain  not  infrequently  was  also  the  owner  of  the  boat. 
At  any  rate  he  was  always  complete  master  of  it,  making  an 
accounting  with  its  owner  only  at  the  end  of  the  season.6  The 
risks  of  the  traffic  were  great  and  freights  were  high.  The 
chances  of  great  profits  induced  investment  in  boats  and  with 
good  fortune  a  captain  could  hope  to  pay  for  his  boat  in  one  or 
two  seasons.  Very  often  boats  were  built  for  captains  with  no 
other  security  than  faith  in  the  integrity  of  the  purchaser. 

Sailing  was  a  trade  to  be  learned  in  the  school  of  apprentice- 
ship. In  the  winter  time  the  sailor  was  engaged  in  repairing 
his  boat  and  in  fitting  it  for  the  coming  season,  if  not  indeed  in 
making  a  new  boat.7  Knowledge  of  sailing  was  required  of  the 
men  who  did  this  work.  The  hazards  of  the  sailing  occupation 
and  the  hardships  to  be  endured  demanded  that  the  sailor 
be  a  rough,  uncouth  pioneer.  Being  such  and  having  served 
his  apprenticeship,  he  had  a  right  to  expect  to  become  some  day 
a  captain  and  perhaps  the  owner  of  a  boat  if  he  could  demon- 
strate his  integrity  and  his  ability  to  control  the  men  under  him. 

It  was  this  type  of  men  who  formed  the  first  sailors'  organiza- 
tion on  the  Lakes  —  the  Seamen's  Benevolent  Union  of  Chicago. 
The  early  records  of  this  organization  indicate  that  it  was 
formed  August  18,  1863,  and  that  it  received  a  charter  from 
the  State  of  Illinois  in  1867. 8  The  scaricty  of  labor  at  this 
time  made  wages  high  without  collective  action.  This  condition, 
together  with  the  absence  of  direct  antagonism  between  em- 
ployer and  employee,  confined  the  object  of  the  organization 
to  the  "moral,  mental  and  mutual  improvement  of  its  mem- 
bers." Similar  organizations  followed  at  other  ports,  but  all 
of  these,  like  the  parent  union,  were  short-lived.  It  was  not 
until  there  developed  a  real  need  for  collective  action  that  the 
organization  of  lake  sailors  was  again  attempted. 

5  Marine  Record,  Aug.  25,  1898,  p.  6. 

6  Marine  Review,  Dec.  15,  1904,  p.  21. 

7  Ibid.,  Dec.,  1909,  p.  528. 

s  From  an  old  seal  and  miscellaneous  records  in  the  office  of  the  present 
Lake  Seamen's  Union. 


161]  BEGINNINGS   OP   ORGANIZATION  11 

About  1870  began  two  of  the  contests  which  have  helped  to 
revolutionize  lake  traffic;  the  first  was  the  contest  of  iron  ore 
with  grain  for  first  place  in  shipments,  and  the  second  was  the 
contest  of  steam  with  sail  as  the  motive  power  of  lake  transpor- 
tation. Iron  ore  was  discovered  on  the  Marquette  range  Sep- 
tember 19,  1844.9  The  first  ore  removed  from  the  mines  was 
carried  on  the  backs  of  prospectors.  For  several  years  attempts 
were  made  to  make  iron  in  the  upper  lake  district  and  it  was  not 
until  1853  that  plans  were  laid  to  ship  the  ore  itself  to  the  lower 
lakes.  In  September  of  that  year,  152  tons  were  shipped  in 
four  vessels  from  Marquette  to  Sault  Ste.  Marie  where  it  was 
portaged  over  the  falls,  reloaded  upon  another  boat  and  carried 
to  Erie,  Pa.  The  Sault  Ste.  Marie  canal  was  opened  June  18, 
1855,  and  immediately  iron  ore  shipments  began  to  assume 
importance. 

It  was  not  until  several  years  later,  however,  that  the  ore  trade 
equaled  the  grain  trade  or  even  the  lumber  trade.  For  ex- 
ample, in  1866  the  grain  receipts  at  Buffalo  alone  were  1,500,000 
tons;  the  lumber  receipts  at  Chicago  alone  were  400,000  tons; 
while  the  ore  receipts  at  all  Lake  Erie  ports  together  amounted 
to  only  279,000  tons.  By  1880  grain  shipments  were  double 
those  of  1866,  while  ore  shipments  increased  sevenfold  and  to- 
talled approximately  2,000,000  tons.  Eight  years  later  ore  ship- 
ments exceeded  5,000,000  tons  and  for  the  first  time  surpassed 
grain  shipments.  Since  then  iron  ore  has  had  no  competitor  in 
lake  tonnage.  The  1890  shipments  were  almost  double  those  of 
1888 ;  1899  more  than  double  1890;  1906  more  than  double  1899 ; 
while  by  1912  the  annual  ore  shipments  by  lake  boats  had  reached 
almost  50,000,000  tons.10 

As  late  as  1863,  93  per  cent  of  all  lake  tonnage  was  sail.11 
Barges  were  first  used  on  the  Lakes  in  1861  —  in  the  lumber 
trade.12  Four  to  six  were  towed  by  propellers  or  tugs.  None 
of  the  early  steam-boats  were  ore  carriers.  All  of  them  carried 

» This  brief  historical  statement  is  condensed  from  an  article  appear- 
ing in  the  Annual  Report  -of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  for  1910,  pp. 
102  et  seq. 

10  Marine  Review,  Dec.,  1912,  p.  440.     The  unprecedented  war  demand 
for  ore  caused  a  further  increase  in  lake  shipments  to  65,000,000  tons  in 
1916.    Ibid.,  Feb.,  1917,  p.  75. 

11  Ibid.,  Apr.  14,  1904,  p.  30. 

12  Ibid.,  June  2,  1904,  p.  52. 


12  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [162 

passengers  and  were  ill-fitted  to  carry  ore  though  some  of  them 
occasionally  carried  a  deck  load.13  The  first  steam-boat  built 
for  the  iron  trade  —  a  200  footer  —  appeared  in  1869.  A  sec- 
ond followed  the  next  year,  built  to  carry  1,200  tons.  The 
second  was  built  as  the  consort  of  the  first.  This  started  a 
method  of  ore  transportation  which  was  the  prevailing  practice 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  Sail-boats  carried  up  to  600  tons  and 
had,  until  1870,  almost  a  monopoly  of  bulk  freight  trade.  Steam 
gained  very  rapidly  from  then  on. 

The  early  steam-boats,  like  the  schooners,  were  built  of  wood. 
The  first  iron  steamer  to  be  used  on  the  Lakes  for  commercial 
purposes  was  built  in  1862 ; 14  this  had  a  gross  tonnage  of  861 
tons.  The  first  to  be  used  in  the  ore  trade  was  built  in  1882.15 
Two  years  later  steel  boats  appeared  and  by  1886  iron  ceased  to 
be  used  for  ship-building  on  the  Lakes.16  As  late  as  1887  all 
but  42  of  the  freighters  on  the  Lakes  were  built  of  wood.  The 
largest  number  of  steam  vessels  built  in  any  one  year  previous 
to  this  time  was  five.  In  1888  14  were  built.  With  the  advent 
of  steel  boats  wood  ceased  to  be  used  for  ship-building  material 
and  sail-boats  gradually  gave  place  to  steam-boats.  No  sail 
freighters  have  been  built  since  1891  and  by  1904,  97  per  cent 
of  the  tonnage  on  the  Lakes  was  propelled  by  steam.17 

The  draught  of  ore  vessels  has  always  been  regulated  by  the 
depth  of  the  water  hi  the  locks  at  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  so  that 
increase  in  the  size  of  vessels  has  depended  upon  the  activity  of 
the  United  States  government  in  deepening  channels,  building 
locks,  installing  lights,  and  in  other  ways  making  traffic  more 
safe  and  providing  for  a  larger  class  of  boats.  The  response  to 
such  improvements  has  been  rapid  and  the  boats  have  contin- 
ually increased  in  size.  The  first  of  the  ore  boats  carried  less 
than  1,000  tons.  The  largest  cargo  in  1882  was  1604  tons;  by 
1892  the  largest  cargo  was  almost  double  that  of  1882 ;  by  1898, 
almost  double  that  of  1892;  while  with  the  appearance  of  the 
500  footer  in  1900,  a  cargo  of  10,000  tons  was  made  possible.18 

is  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1910,  p.  106. 

i*  Marine  Review,  Feb.,  1910,  p.  64. 

is  Ibid.,  June  2,  1904,  p.  53. 

^  Ibid.,  Feb.,  1910,  p.  64. 

IT  Ibid.,  Apr.  14,  1904,  p.  30. 

is  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1910,  pp.  109  et  seq. 


163]  BEGINNINGS   OP   ORGANIZATION  13 

Even  this  amount  has  been  increased  more  than  40  per  cent  since 
1900. 

After  the  first  real  boom  in  lake  traffic,  beginning  in  1871, 
came  the  depression  of  1872  from  which  the  lake  trade  did  not 
recover  until  1878.19  The  labor  riots  which  accompanied  the  de- 
pression resulted  in  the  revival  of  the  spirit  of  organization,  this 
time  under  changed  conditions.  Wages  were  low ;  the  boats  had 
increased  in  size  and  hence  in  cost;  the  percentage  of  captains 
owning  their  own  boats  had  decreased  and  in  their  places  had 
appeared  vessel  owners  who  began  to  try  to  run  their  boats  on  a 
more  business-like  basis.  Following  the  Chicago  riots  of  1877 
one  of  the  labor  leaders  —  a  longshoreman  —  organized  a  strong 
union  in  his  own  trade  and  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  sea- 
men. Under  his  leadership  the  old  seamen's  union  was  reorgan- 
ized on  April  1,  1878,  under  the  name  of  Chicago  Seamen's 
Benevolent  Union,  having  as  its  object  the  "mental,  moral  and 
financial  improvement  of  its  members. ' ' 20  Immediately  branches 
were  organized  at  other  lake  ports  —  nine  within  a  year.  Con- 
trol of  the  organization,  including  the  branches,  was  retained  in 
the  parent  union  at  Chicago. 

The  return  of  prosperity  in  1878-1879  found  the  sailors  well 
organized  and  ready  to  dictate  terms  to  the  vessel  owners.  Only 
sailors  —  those  with  practical  knowledge  of  operating  sail- 
boats—  were  admitted  to  membership  in  the  union,  but  mates 
and  even  captains  were  included  at  times,  since  the  interests  of 
captain  and  owner  were  no  longer  identical.  The  increased  de- 
mand for  sailors  gave  the  union  a  sense  of  power  and  "scab" 
became  anathema.21  Union  members  were  not  permitted  to  sail 
with  non-union  men  22  and  those  who  incurred  the  enmity  of  the 
organization  by  refusing  to  join  it  were,  in  some  instances,  for- 
ever prohibited  from  becoming  members  or  were  driven  from  the 
Lakes  if  even  harsher  methods  were  not  used.  When  necessary 
to  keep  non-union  men  off  the  boats  union  men  were  permitted 

is  Marine  Review,  Feb.,  1910,  p.  64. 

20  As  stated  in  its  constitution,  in  ms. 

21  Boarding-house  keepers  were  boycotted  for  harboring  non-union  sail- 
ors and  even  an  undertaker  who  had  buried  a  non-union  man  was  placed 
on  the  unfair  list  for  a  period  of  99  years.     Journal  of  the  Chicago  Sea- 
men's  Benevolent  Union,  in  ms.,  passim. 

22  Constitution,  1879,  sec.  7. 


14  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [164 

to  work  at  less  wages  than  the  scale  adopted  by  the  union  itself. 

The  idea  of  a  trade  agreement,  fixing  for  a  season  wages  and 
conditions  of  work,  was  not  thought  of.  Union  members  looked 
with  distrust  upon  any  conference  with  boat  owners  and  pre- 
ferred to  dictate  the  terms  under  which  they  were  willing  to 
work.23  The  sailing  year  was  divided  into  four  seasons:  1. 
Pre-season  shipments  began  before  the  regular  spring  shipments 
were  definitely  started.  High  freights  due  to  unusual  risks  of 
the  weather  tempted  some  boats  to  make  a  trip  or  two  before 
spring  really  opened.  2.  The  regular  spring  season  began  with 
settled  weather  conditions.  3.  The  fall  season  was  characterized 
by  decreasing  traffic  and  the  disappearance  of  "summer  sailors" 
from  the  Lakes.  4.  Post-season  shipments  were  made  under 
conditions  similar  to  the  very  early  shipments.  In  the  first  and 
fourth  periods  wages  were  usually  paid  at  so  much  per  trip  since 
the  time  required  to  make  a  trip  was  uncertain  and  day  wages 
might  prevent  shipments  since  wages  might  amount  to  more 
than  the  freights  received.  Wages  during  the  second  and  third 
periods  were  paid  by  the  day.  It  was  customary  for  the  captain 
to  pay  off  his  crew  upon  reaching  port  and  to  hire  a  new  crew 
only  when  again  ready  to  sail.2* 

Under  these  conditions  the  union  forbade  its  members  to  ship 
for  a  round  trip  when  sailing  to  a  port  which  had  a  branch 
union.  For  it  was  not  unusual  for  wages  to  be  changed  every 
few  days  if  the  union  members  thought  freight  rates  warranted 
an  increase  in  wages.  The  method  of  increasing  wages  was  as 
follows:  the  union  men  at  any  port  were  called  together  and 
asked  to  vote  an  increase  of  $.25  per  day.  Such  increases  al- 
ways took  effect  the  following  day.  Hence  a  member  shipping 
from  Chicago  to  Buffalo,  for  example,  at  $1.75  per  day  might 
find  upon  reaching  the  latter  port  that  wages  had  been  raised 
to  $2.00  per  day.  In  fact  such  increases  became  so  frequent 
that  at  the  second  general  convention  of  the  union,  in  1879,  it 
was  voted  that  no  branch  could  raise  its  wages  above  the  scale 
set  by  the  Chicago  union.25 

In  reality  of  course  this  was  an  attempt  to  establish  a  sliding 
scale  of  wages  to  be  governed  by  freight  conditions.  But  when 

23  Ms.  records  of  Lake  Seamen 's  Union,  passim. 

24  Marine  Record,  Oct.  17,  1901,  p.  11. 

25  Journal  of  Chicago  Seamen 's  Benevolent  Union,  in  ms.,  passim 


165]  BEGINNINGS   OF   ORGANIZATION  15 

left  to  an  irresponsible  group  of  sailors  to  learn  first  what  freight 
rates  prevailed  and  then  to  adjust  wages  accordingly,  it  often 
resulted  in  tying  up  the  boats  because  the  wages  demanded  in- 
cluded profits  as  well.  Indeed  it  was  not  unusual  for  the 
union  to  call  a  second  meeting  within  a  day  or  two  after  voting 
to  raise  wages  in  order  to  reduce  them  again  if  its  members 
thought  the  boats  would  not  leave  port  under  the  wages  set. 

In  the  hands  of  the  union  the  individual  vessel  owners  were 
at  a  disadvantage.  If  they  secured  non-union  men,  these  were 
either  driven  from  the  Lakes  or  into  the  union.  The  owner 
must  either  have  accepted  the  terms  offered  by  the  union  or 
have  kept  his  boats  tied  to  the  docks.  After  almost  three  years 
of  submission  to  union  dictation  the  vessel  owners  at  Cleveland 
met  on  September  1,  1880,  and  formed  the  Cleveland  Vessel 
Owners'  Association,  having  as  its  chief  purpose  the  destruction 
of  the  seamen's  unions.  The  owners  at  other  ports  were  favor- 
able to  the  formation  of  a  general  vessel  owners'  association  to 
effect  this  and  other  purposes  and  on  February  16,  1881,  a  gen- 
eral meeting  was  held  at  Chicago  to  discuss  such  an  association.28 
Already  the  ore  trade  was  centered  in  Cleveland,  the  grain  trade 
in  Buffalo,  and  the  lumber  trade  in  Chicago.  There  was  not 
yet  sufficient  community  of  interest  to  insure  the  success  of  a 
general  organization  and  the  Chicago  meeting  failed  to  accom- 
plish its  purpose.  Instead  the  local  associations  continued  and 
met  with  varying  success.  The  most  successful  were  those  at 
Buffalo  and  Cleveland. 

The  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association  began  by  estab- 
lishing shipping  offices  at  Cleveland,  Ashtabula,  and  other  near- 
by ports,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  non-union  men  and  of  pro- 
tecting them  on  the  boats.  As  its  chief  shipping  officer  the 
association  secured  a  man  who  though  once  a  union  sympathizer 
and  a  member  of  a  sailors'  union,  had  since  cast  his  lot  with  the 
opponents  of  unionism  and  had  already  demonstrated  his  ability 
as  a  strike  breaker.  Being  a  prize  fighter  of  no  mean  ability 
and  a  police  officer  with  notches  on  his  gun  barrel  he  was  the 
type  of  man  needed  by  the  association  to  do  battle  with  the 
turbulent  unionists. 

Calling  to  his  assistance  men  of  his  own  type,  the  shipping 
officer  began  a  twenty  years'  war  upon  the  sailors'  unions.  The 

26  Beers,  History  of  the  Great  Lakes  (Chicago,  1899),  p.  465. 


16  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [166 

first  open' fight  occurred  during  the  season  of  1881  and  resulted 
in  a  victory  for  the  employers.  When  the  union  began  to  re- 
coup its  losses  two  years  later  it  turned  first  to  demands  for 
legislation  as  a  means  of  remedying  its  ills.  The  lobby  at  "Wash- 
ington to  secure  the  passage  of  various  seamen's  bills  was  es- 
tablished at  this  time.27  Failing  in  immediate  success  in  its 
demands  for  legislation,  the  union  again  gave  battle  to  the  Cleve- 
land Vessel  Owners'  Association  and  again  met  defeat  in  1885. 

In  addition  to  a  return  to  legislation  after  the  second  defeat, 
the  union  turned  to  the  Knights  of  Labor  for  support  and  on 
March  24,  1886,  secured  a  charter  for  the  Seamen's  Assembly 
of  the  Knights  of  Labor.28  The  war  against  the  Cleveland  Ves- 
sel Owners'  Association  was  continued  as  before,  but  the  Knights 
of  Labor  failed  to  accomplish  for  the  seamen  more  than  the 
latter  had  been  able  to  do  for  themselves.  Furthermore  the 
type  of  men  who  sailed  the  Lakes  were  not  greatly  enthused 
over  the  ritualistic  ceremonies  demanded  in  the  meetings  of  the 
Knights  of  Labor,  nor  were  they  willing  to  grant  their  officers 
the  deference  due  a  Venerable  Sage,  an  Unknown  Knight,  a 
Judge  Advocate,  or  an  Almoner. 

Union  membership  failed  to  increase  and  the  Vessel  Owners' 
Association  retained  control  over  wages  and  labor  conditions  on 
the  boats.  At  the  same  time  a  new  cloud  began  to  assume  huge 
proportions  on  the  horizon  of  the  seamen's  union.  Up  to  this 
time  the  union  was  composed  of  sailors  —  men  on  sailing  vessels 
only.  Here,  with  the  exception  of  the  master  of  the  boat,  there 
was  little  distinction  of  skill  among  the  workers.  All  were 
sailors  —  members  of  a  skilled  trade.  While  on  the  steam-boats 
there  were  various  grades  of  men  with  the  unskilled  deckhands 
and  firemen  in  the  majority.  The  sailors  looked  with  disdain 
upon  these  two  classes  of  men  and  "Wooden  boats,  iron  men: 
iron  boats,  wooden  men"  became  their  slogan.29 

27  The  first  appropriation  noted  in  the  journals  of  the  seamen's  union  for 
the  purpose  of  defraying  the  expenses  of  a  representative  at  Washington 
was  in  1884.     Since  that  time  much  attention  has  been  given  by  the  union 
to   legislation.      The   now   famous   so-called   LaFollette    Seamen's   Law    is 
based  upon  the  same  demands  made  by  the  imion  in  1884. 

28  Branches  of  the  union  were  given  proper  names  in  addition  to  their 
K.  of  L.  numbers.     For  example,  the  Buffalo  local  was  called  the  ' '  Perry 
Labor  Club,"  Local  Assembly  6166,  K.  of  L. 

29  Ms.  journal  of  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  Feb.  20,  1894. 


167]  BEGINNINGS   OP   ORGANIZATION  17 

In  spite  of  its  two  decisive  defeats  by  the  Vessel  Owners'  As- 
sociation and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  steam-boats  were 
steadily  taking  over  the  business  of  the  sailing  vessels  and  hence 
reducing  the  demand  for  sailors,  the  union  had  continued  its 
system  of  voting  changes  in  wages  whenever  it  seemed  at  all  like- 
ly to  succeed  in  forcing  an  advance.  To  be  sure,  its  failures 
since  1881  had  far  outnumbered  its  successes.  Nevertheless  it 
continued  the  plan.  By  1888  the  union  leaders  realized  that 
steam-boats  would  soon  completely  displace  sailing  vessels  and 
that  if  the  union  would  prosper  it  must  organize  the  men  on  the 
steam-boats.  The  rank  and  file  of  the  men  did  not  realize  the 
change  taking  place  in  lake  traffic  and  opposed  any  plan  to  ex- 
tend the  jurisdiction  of  the  union.  Then  too  the  Vessel  Owners' 
Association  so  thoroughly  controlled  the  situation  that  the  steam- 
boatmen  did  not  dare  join  the  union  at  this  time. 

In  1889  offers  were  made  to  the  vessel  owners  to  have  a  com- 
mittee of  the  union  meet  a  committee  of  the  association  and  try 
to  effect  'an  amicable  settlement  of  their  differences.80  These 
offers  were  ignored.  The  year  1889  was  a  dull  season  for  sailing 
vessels  on  the  Lakes  and  the  owners  had  little  difficulty  in  se- 
curing non-union  men  at  any  wages  they  were  willing  to  pay. 
Failing  in  their  request  for  a  conference,  the  union  leaders  then 
proposed  that  any  attempt  to  set  a  union  scale  of  wages  be 
abandoned  and  that  the  organization  be  continued  merely  as  a 
beneficial  association.  This  too  was  opposed  by  the  members31 
and  for  two  years  longer  the  losing  fight  was  continued. 

The  union  suffered  an  unusual  loss  of  membership  in  1889 
and  at  the  opening  of  1890  prospects  looked  discouraging.  With- 
drawal from  the  Knights  of  Labor  was  discussed  though  not 
acted  upon.  It  was  voted,  however,  that  the  question  of  wages 
"shall  not  be  entertained  in  any  way,  shape  or  form  collectively 
by  any  branch  or  body  attached  to  this  Association;"  and  that 
"members  shall  make  no  discrimination  as  to  whom  they  shall 
sail  with  or  as  to  where  they  shall  obtain  this  employment. ' ' 32 
Later  in  the  season  the  demand  for  seamen  increased  and  the 

so  Circular  letters  were  sent  out  by  the  union  to  the  members  of  the 
association. 

si  At  the  same  meeting,  however,  the  union  modified  its  policy  toward 
non-union  sailors  by  permitting  its  members  to  sail  with  such  men. 

32  Journal  of  the  union,  in  ms.,  Jan.  21,  1890. 


18  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [168 

above  action  was  rescinded.  Union  shipping  offices  were  estab- 
lished, wage  scales  were  again  voted,  and  union  members  were 
prohibited  from  sailing  with  non-unionists.33  The  vessel  own- 
ers' shipping  offices  were  boycotted  and  members  of  the  union 
found  within  such  offices  were  fined  heavily.  The  Vessel  Own- 
ers' Association  resorted  to  its  accustomed  practice  of  securing 
non-union  men  from  the  Atlantic  ports  and  succeeded  in  pre- 
venting any  effective  action  by  the  union. 

Near  the  end  of  the  season  of  1890  all  available  vessel  tonnage 
was  in  commission  and  the  outlook  for  1891  was  good.  The 
spirit  of  unionism  revived.  The  determination  to  withdraw 
from  the  Knights  of  Labor  and  to  substitute  a  strong  union  of 
lake-faring  men  for  the  old  conglomerate  organization  of  all 
trades  had  become  general  enough  to  lead  the  members  of  the 
union  to  follow  the  advice  of  their  leaders.  One  faction  of  the 
union,  led  by  the  Milwaukee  branch,  remained  loyal  to  the 
Knights  of  Labor  for  two  years  longer. 

The  seceders  formed  a  new  organiation  but  they  were  still  im- 
bued with  the  industrial  union  philosophy  of  the  Knights  of 
Labor,  as  is  indicated  by  the  following  announcement  to  the  press 
at  the  time  of  organizing: 

We  want  to  number  among  us  every  man  on  the  Great  Lakes  who  is  em- 
ployed in  any  capacity  connected  with  the  Lakes.  We  want  the  man  who 
builds  the  boat;  the  man  who  runs  her  engines  and  fires  her  boilers;  the 
man  who  loads  and  unloads  her;  her  deckhands;  cook;  every  man  who  de- 
pends for  a  living  upon  the  vessel  owner.  When  we  have  these  men  enrolled 
as  members  we  will  be  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  owner  of  floating  prop- 
erty, and  not  until  then.  Then  we  can  go  to  our  employers  and  demand  fair 
compensation  for  our  labor,  and  we  will  be  in  a  position  to  back  up  our 
claims. 

This  action  was  followed  the  next  year  by  the  formation  of  the 
National  Seamen's  Union  of  America  to  include  the  unions  on 
the  Lakes,  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  unions 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  were  not  represented  but  sent  their  greet- 
ings. The  national  union  also  was  to  be  a  democratic  organiza- 
tion, to  include  all  men  who  ' '  make  a  living  by  following  the  sea 
or  on  the  Lakes  in  any  capacity  in  steam  or  sailing  vessels. ' ' 34 
The  dreams  of  the  founders  of  these  organizations  were  never 

33  Journal  of  the  union,  in  ms.,  passim. 
84  Proceedings  of  the  union  for  1892,  p.  3. 


16!)]  BEGINNINGS  OF   ORGANIZATION  19 

realized  but  their  success  was  immediate  and  helped  to  bring 
about  a  change  in  the  employers'  associations  on  the  Lakes. 

As  already  noted,  the  attempt  to  form  a  general  vessel  owners' 
association  at  Chicago  in  1881  failed  because  there  was  not  yet 
sufficient  community  of  interest  to  hold  the  local  associations  to- 
gether. Their  interests  were,  for  the  most  part,  local  in  their 
nature  and  as  such  could  be  handled  better  by  local  organiza- 
tions. These  local  associations  continued  their  separate  exist- 
ences, with  the  Cleveland  association  leading  in  importance  and 
at  times  assuming  the  character  of  a  general  organization.  Hav- 
ing succeeded  in  defeating  the  seamen's  union  in  its  first  open 
battle  in  1881,  the  Cleveland  association  turned  its  attention  to 
legislation,  navigation  problems,  etc.,  retaining  its  shipping  of- 
fices and  its  non-union  policy  as  its  chief  reason  for  existence. 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  was  formed  at  Buffalo  May  21, 
1885,  after  a  preliminary  meeting  of  vessel  owners  from  the 
various  lake  ports  had  been  held  at  Chicago  April  14,  1885. 35 
According  to  its  constitution,  the  purpose  of  the  association  was 
' '  to  consider  and  take  action  upon  all  general  questions  relating 
to  the  navigation  and  carrying  business  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  waters  tributary  thereto,  with  the  intent  to  improve  the 
character  of  the  service  rendered  to  the  public,  to  protect  the 
common  interest  of  the  lake  carriers,  and  to  promote  their  gen- 
eral welfare. " 36  It  was  composed  at  first  of  passenger  and 
package  freight  lines  and  was  dominated  by  the  larger  interests. 
It  was  opposed  by  the  smaller  owners  in  this  class  of  business  and 
by  the  bulk  freighters  who  already  had  membership  in  the  ex- 
isting associations.  In  order  to  overcome  the  opposition  of  the 
latter,  the  new  association  eschewed  labor  troubles  and  refused 
to  consider  any  question  of  a  purely  local  nature.  It  encouraged 
the  formation  of  local  associations  for  these  purposes  and  was 
instrumental  in  building  up  a  strong  local  association  at  Buffalo. 

The  new  association  was  opposed  especially  by  the  Cleveland 
Vessel  Owners'  Association  because  the  former  was  dominated 
by  Buffalo  interests  while  the  latter  largely  dominated  the  policies 
of  the  local  associations  at  other  lake  ports.  But  in  spite  of 
strong  opposition,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  included  in  its 

as  Marine  Record,  Jan.  26,  1899,  p.  15. 
36  Beers,  op  cit.,  p.  466. 


20  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [170 

membership,  at  the  end  of  its  first  year,  one-fifth  of  all  lake  ton- 
nage, steam,  sail,  and  barge.  Its  first  official  act  was  to  secure 
the  services  of  a  representative  at  Washington  to  watch  legisla- 
tion affecting  lake  interests.  Other  subjects  which  received  at- 
tention early  were  the  establishment  of  lights,  the  clearing  out  of 
obstructed  channels,  and  the  building  of  bridges  over  connecting 
water  courses. 

From  1885  to  1891  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and  the 
Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association  remained  independent  of 
each  other,  occasionally  acting  in  harmony  but  more  often  work- 
ing at  cross  purposes,  even  though  seeking  the  same  end.87  The 
weakening  effect  of  this  division  of  forces,  together  with  the 
growing  strength  of  the  seamen's  union,  brought  about  at  the 
beginning  of  1891  a  demand  among  the  vessel  owners  for  an 
amalgamation  of  the  two  major  associations  and  the  absorption 
of  all  other  such  organizations  on  the  Lakes.  Throughout  the 
latter  part  of  1891  conferences  were  held  at  various  ports  around 
the  Lakes  and  on  April  28,  1892,  a  general  conference  at  De- 
troit effected  the  reorganization  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion to  include  all  vessel  owners  on  the  Lakes  and  to  take  over 
all  activities  of  existing  associations.38 

The  new  association  took  over  the  shipping  offices  formerly 
maintained  by  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association  and  in 
addition  established  similar  offices  at  other  important  lake 
ports.89  Almost  immediately  thereafter  a  war  of  extermination 
was  begun  against  the  reorganized  seamen's  union.40  Shipping 
offices  were  established  in  New  York  City  and  men  were  sent 
from  there  to  the  Lakes  to  take  the  places  of  the  union  seamen, 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  paying  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion.41 Violence  was  practiced  by  both  sides  and  personal  en- 
counters became  very  common.42  Numerous  murders  have  been 

37  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1892,  pp.  14  et  seq.;  ibid., 
1893,  p.  1. 

SB  Ibid.,  1893,  pp.  1-2. 

39  Ibid.,  1893,  p.  2. 

^Proceedings  International  Seamen's  Union,  1893,  p.  7;  1895,  p.  7. 

4*  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1893,  p.  22. 

42  Ibid.,  1893,  pp.  13-14.  The  prosecution  of  union  men  and  the  defense 
of  non-unionists  arrested  during  fights  and  pistol  duels  caused  one  of  the 
greatest  items  of  expense  for  the  association  during  this  year. 


171]  BEGINNINGS  OP  ORGANIZATION  21 

charged  to  these  encounters.  Police  protection  varied  inversely 
with  the  strength  of  unionism  in  politics  and  directly  with  the 
degree  of  influence  exerted  by  the  members  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association.  For  example,  in  Buffalo,  one  of  the  two  chief  cen- 
tres of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  strength,  ninety  police 
officers  were  detailed  by  the  city  authorities  to  give  non-union 
men  protection  while  in  port.  And  this  without  expense  to  the 
vessel  owners.43  While  in  Chicago,  the  centre  of  union  strength, 
the  vessel  owners  and  their  non-union  employees  were  left  to  the 
mercy  of  the  union  pickets. 

Measured  by  the  shipments  of  iron  ore,  lake  traffic  decreased 
over  30  per  cent  in  the  depression  of  1893  and  the  1892  figures 
were  not  reached  again  until  1895.  This  slump  in  traffic  created 
a  surplus  of  labor  and,  together  with  the  dissensions  which  de- 
veloped within  the  ranks  of  the  union,  helped  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  in  its  fight  to  disrupt  the  union.  In  spite  of  the 
inclusive  declaration  to  the  press  which  accompanied  the  re- 
organization of  the  Lake  Seamen's  Benevolent  Association  in 
1891,44  the  rank  and  file  of  the  union  were  still  opposed  to  ac- 
cepting steam-boatmen  as  members.  After  a  two  years'  strug- 
gle to  prevent  the  lake  seamen  from  withdrawing  from  the 
Knights  of  Labor,  the  Milwaukee  local  gave  up  the  fight  at  the 
beginning  of  1894  and  started  a  new  organization  to  be  composed 
of  steam-boatmen  and  sailors  and  to  be  called  the  Lakefaring 
Men's  Union.45  It  was  thought  by  the  seamen's  union  that  this 
new  organization  was  fostered  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
to  divide  the  forces  of  the  seamen.  At  about  the  same  time  the 
Steamboatmen 's  Protective  Association,  to  be  composed  of 
wheelsmen,  lookoutsmen,  watchmen,  and  stewards,  was  started  at 
Chicago  with  150  members.  A  general  organization  to  include 
all  steam-boatmen  on  the  Lakes  was  planned.46 

The  general  dissatisfaction  with  the  failure  of  the  Lake  Sea- 
men's Benevolent  Association  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  1893,  together  with  the  formation 
of  the  dual  organizations,  brought  about  another  reorganization 
of  the  parent  union  in  1894  under  the  name  of  Lake  Seamen's 

43  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1893,  p.  12. 

44  Cf.  supra,  p.  18. 

45  Journal  Lake  Seamen  '3  Union,  in  ms.,  Jan.  30,  1894. 

46  Marine  Review,  Jan.  5,  1892,  p.  12. 


22  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [172 

Union.47  A  definite  effort  was  then  made  to  enlist  in  its  mem- 
bership the  able  seamen  on  steam-boats.  Men  were  plentiful  at 
this  time,  however,  and  the  efforts  of  the  union  were  unavailing 
for  a  time,  either  to  increase  its  membership  or  to  secure  favor- 
able terms  from  the  vessel  owners. 

For  the  third  time  the  owners  of  the  vessels  which  carried 
iron  ore  had  succeeded  in  driving  the  seamen's  union  from  the 
Lakes  —  twice  when  organized  in  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners' 
Association  and  once  in  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.  At  no 
time  had  there  been  any  serious  talk  of  compromise,  of  trade 
agreements,  of  giving  the  men  on  the  boats  a  voice  in  the  de- 
termination of  the  conditions  under  which  they  worked.  In- 
censed at  the  dictatorial  methods  of  the  early  unions,  the  owners 
began  a  counter  attack  and  won  the  first  open  battle  in  1881. 
Intermittent  guerrilla  warfare  during  the  succeeding  four  years 
was  followed  by  the  second  open  fight  in  1885  and  again  the 
owners  won.  Again  the  union  resorted  to  secret  attacks  upon 
non-unionists  and  vessel  owners  until,  encouraged  by  reinforce- 
ments in  1891,  its  members  began  the  third  campaign  against 
the  combined  forces  of  their  union-hating  employers.  Like  the 
vessel  owners,  the  unionists  did  not  wish  compromise  or  trade 
agreement,  but  sought  dictation  of  the  terms  of  their  employment 
instead. 


47  Journal  of  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  in  ms.,  Mar.  6,  1894. 


CHAPTER  II 
GROWING  CONCENTRATION 

By  1896  the  bulk  freight  traffic  on  the  Lakes  had  become 
definitely  established  as  primarily  a  movement  of  iron  ore.  Ship- 
ments of  coal  up  the  Lakes  were  increasing  to  be  sure,  but  such 
cargoes  were  profitable  only  when  carried  in  the  vessels  which 
brought  ore  down  the  Lakes.  The  coal  was  carried  to  offset  the 
charges  of  returning  the  vessels  to  the  ore  mines.  The  ship- 
ments of  grain,  the  nearest  rival  to  ore,  amounted  in  1896  to 
less  than  5,000,000  tons;  the  shipments  of  ore  amounted  to  more 
than  twice  as  much  as  the  shipments  of  grain.  The  banner 
year  for  grain  shipments  was  1898  when  slightly  more  than 
6,000,000  tons  were  received  at  Buffalo.1  Since  then  the  grain 
trade  has  declined  nearly  50  per  cent.  This  decline  has  been 
due  to  changed  conditions  of  agriculture,  more  grain  now  being 
fed  to  stock  than  formerly,  and  to  larger  shipments  south  rather 
than  east.2 

On  the  other  hand,  annual  ore  shipments  since  1896  have  in- 
creased from  10,000,000  tons  to  65,000,000  tons.  Owing  to  the 
depression  in  the  early  nineties,  but  little  more  ore  was  shipped 
in  1896  than  in  1890 ;  but  beginning  in  1896  the  increase  in  ore 
traffic  has  been  rapid  and,  except  for  occasional  lean  years, 
continuous. 

During  this  time  capital  invested  in  every  branch  of  the  iron 
and  steel  industry  and  hence  control  of  every  branch  of  the  in- 
dustry has  become  concentrated  into  fewer  hands.  This  con- 
centration of  control  has  affected  lake  traffic  as  well.  Previous 
to  1897  there  had  been  corporate  control  of  a  part  of  the  vessels 
and  the  furnace  interests  were  large  owners  of  boats.  But  up  to 
this  time  the  independent  boat  owners,  those  with  no  mine  or 

1  Marine  Record,  Oct.  20,  1898,  p.  8. 

2  Marine  Review,  Jan.  22,  1906,  pp.  15-16. 

23 


24  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [174 

furnace  connections,  had  maintained  a  fair  balance  of  power. 
Small  fleets  were  most  common. 

The  Mesabi  Range  was  opened  in  1892. 3  Three  years  later  it 
took  the  lead  in  ore  shipments,  sending  nearly  3,000,000  tons  to 
the  Lake  Erie  ports.  By  1901  it  was  furnishing  approximately 
one-half  of  the  ore  shipped  from  Lake  Superior.  Since  1905  it 
has  furnished  from  60  to  75  per  cent.4  Before  the  formation 
of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  it  had  not  been  the 
policy  of  the  Carnegie  interests  to  own  either  mines  or  vessels. 
Hence  when  the  Rockefeller  interests  secured  control  of  the 
Mesabi  Range 5  they  sold  the  ore  to  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company 
and  also  secured  a  contract  to  convey  it  to  the  Lake  Erie  ports. 
In  December,  1895,  Rockefeller  placed  orders  for  seven  steamers 
and  five  barges  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  fleet  which  for  a 
short  time  exerted  a  great  influence  in  lake  ore  traffic.6  Rocke- 
feller's contract  for  selling  ore  to  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company 
stipulated  that  the  Rockefeller  fleet  would  be  given  a  minimum 
of  1,200,000  tons  annually  at  the  going  rate  for  the  season.7 
The  importance  of  this  clause  will  be  noted  later. 

The  coming  of  the  Rockefeller  or  Bessemer  fleet  meant  many 
changes  in  the  methods  of  dealing  with  the  various  classes  of 
labor  on  the  boats.  Although  the  managers  of  the  new  fleet  in- 
troduced relatively  few  new  ideas,  they  put  into  successful  oper- 
ation for  the  first  time  many  ideas  already  in  the  minds  of  the 
managers  of  other  fleets.  With  the  appearance  of  the  large  steel 
steamer  and  the  organization  of  the  larger  fleets,  the  old  system 
of  leaving  the  entire  control  of  the  vessel,  including  the  charter- 
ing of  cargoes,  collecting  of  freight,  etc.,  to  the  captain  gradually 
had  disappeared.  But  as  yet  the  captain  had  received  but  little 
dictation  in  the  actual  management  of  his  boat  or  in  the  control 
of  his  men. 

Up  to  this  time  the  two  chief  requirements  of  the  captain  were 

3  During  this  year  it  sent  4,245  tons  of  ore  down  the  Lakes.  Marine 
Record,  Dec.  14,  1899,  p.  9. 

*  Annual  Eeports  of  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  passim. 

5  During  the  panic  of  1893  John  D.  Eockefeller  secured  his  title  to  the 
ore  deposits,  accidentally  perhaps.  Annual  Report  Lalce  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation, 1910,  p.  112. 

«  Marine  Review,  Dec.  12,  1895,  p.  5. 

7  Ibid.,  Jan.  14,  1897. 


175]  GROWING   CONCENTRATION  25 

that  he  be  a  successful  navigator  and  that  he  be  able  to  handle 
his  men,  using  force  if  necessary  to  quell  mutinies  and  other 
disturbances  on  the  boat.  These  were  heritages  from  the  days 
when  the  sail-boat  and  the  sailor  dominated  lake  traffic.  Then 
small  investments  in  boats  made  wages  the  chief  element  in  the 
cost  of  delays.  And  if  delays  were  occasioned  while  the  boat 
was  in  port,  even  this  cost  was  reduced  to  a  minimum  since  only 
the  captain  and  the  cook  were  retained  on  the  pay-roll. 

All  this  was  changed  when  a  costly  steam-boat  with  a  heavy 
overhead  expense  replaced  a  cheap  sailing  vessel  with  prac- 
tically no  costs  but  wages  and  repairs.  Then  too,  in  the  sailing 
vessel  the  captain  had  at  one  time  or  another  filled  every  position 
from  royal  boy  up;  on  the  steam-boat  he  was  a  graduate  of  the 
forward  end  of  the  boat  only  and  he  knew  nothing  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  boat's  machinery.  In  the  first  place,  then,  the  an- 
cient prerogatives  of  the  master  of  the  boat  began  to  be  over- 
ruled by  the  owner  of  the  boat  who  insisted  upon  a  more  business- 
like management  of  his  large  investment;  and  in  the  second 
place,  the  supreme  authority  of  the  master  began  to  be  ques- 
tioned by  the  chief  engineer,  a  man  who  looked  upon  his  position 
as  of  at  least  equal  importance  with  that  of  the  captain  and  who, 
therefore,  looked  to  the  owner  of  the  boat  rather  than  to  the 
captain  for  his  orders. 

These  changes  were  accentuated  in  the  Bessemer  fleet.  A 
shore  captain  or  commodore  was  appointed  to  whom  the  captain 
must  look  for  his  orders.8  The  engineer  received  his  orders 
from  a  similar  official  known  as  the  fleet  engineer.  Dispatch 
meant  greatly  increased  dividends  and  attention  was  given  to 
fuel  costs,  time  studies  in  running  light  and  in  running  loaded, 
etc.  Definite  schedules  were  made  showing  the  amount  of  fuel 
to  burn  per  hour  and  the  rate  of  speed  to  be  followed.  In 
numerous  other  ways  system  replaced  luck  and  efficiency  be- 
came the  watchword.  Masters  were  required  to  give  orders  to 
engineers  in  writing  in  order  to  place  responsibility  in  case  of 
mistake.9 

Finally,  another  important  change  occurred  in  the  attitude 
of  the  owner  toward  the  employees  on  the  boats.  In  sailing  days 

a  Marine  Review,  Feb.  27,  1896,  p.  7. 
o  Ibid.,  passim. 


26  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [176 

it  was  customary  for  the  captain  to  hire  for  a  single  trip  and 
to  dismiss  his  crew  as  soon  as  he  reached  port.  In  securing  a 
new  crew  upon  leaving  port  he  might,  of  course,  hire  a  part  of 
the  same  men.  This  was  largely  a  matter  of  accident.  In  so  far 
as  the  unions  controlled  the  men  the  chances  were  against  a  man 
sailing  on  the  same  boat  very  long  at  a  time,  for  if  there  were 
idle  men  in  port  these  were  given  first  opportunity  to  ship. 
Furthermore,  but  little  inducement  was  offered  to  keep  men  on 
the  boats.  Living  quarters  furnished  the  minimum  accommoda- 
tions for  physical  well-being  and  food  was  poor  in  quality  and 
illy  prepared.10  Seamen  were  considered  to  be  so  many  units  of 
labor  power  and  that  captain  was  considered  most  successful 
who  could  extract  this  power  with  least  expense  and  least  open 
hostility.  This  failure  to  provide  physical  comforts  and  to  con- 
sider sailors  as  more  than  machines  had  its  effect  in  the  low 
class  of  men  who  were  attracted  to  this  work. 

In  the  early  days  of  steam-boat  supremacy  this  attitude  was 
continued  and  it  was  not  expected  nor  desired  that  unlicensed 
men  should  remain  long  on  a  boat.  Firemen  and  deckhands  es- 
pecially were  recognized  as  a  shifting  lot  of  rough  characters 
and  no  owner  expected  much  of  these  men  except  the  exercise 
of  brute  strength  during  the  time  they  were  employed.  A  few 
owners  were  beginning  to  take  steps  to  change  these  conditions 
when  the  Bessemer  fleet  was  organized,  but  it  was  left  to  this 
line  of  boats  to  announce  the  change  as  a  definite  policy  of  the 
management.  As  soon  as  these  boats  were  launched  the  man- 
ager announced  that  he  proposed  "to  offer  every  inducement 
for  crews  to  remain  aboard  their  vessels,  year  after  year,  and  to 
seek  promotion,  with  a  full  understanding  that  they  are  to  be 
promoted  if  they  are  deserving  of  it,  and  that  a  system  of  ad- 
vancement, from  firemen  up,  is  to  be  encouraged  on  the  com- 
pany 's  boats. ' ' "  Wholesome  food  and  comfortable  quarters 
were  provided  and  attention  was  given  to  the  selection  of  men 
employed  on  the  boats. 

In  1896  the  ore  carrying  tonnage  on  the  Lakes  was  increased 
over  20  per  cent  by  the  appearance  of  thirty  new  boats  having  a 
gross  tonnage  of  over  100,000  tons.12  This  increase  in  tonnage 

10  Marine  Review,  passim. 

11  Ibid.,  July  2,  1896,  p.  7. 

12  Ibid.,  Feb.,  1910,  pp.  64-65. 


177]  GROWING   CONCENTRATION  27 

was  equal  approximately  to  the  additions  of  the  preceding  three 
years.  In  the  absence  of  a  combination  to  fix  rates,  the  competi- 
tion produced  by  this  addition  to  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
ore  boats  reduced  charter  freights  for  the  following  year  from 
$.91  per  ton  to  $.63  per  ton.13  In  1897  eighteen  more  boats 
with  a  tonnage  of  58,000  were  built  and  in  1898  freights  ruled  at 
$.61  per  ton.14 

In  the  fall  of  1898  unusually  severe  storms  on  the  Lakes  made 
a  considerable  reduction  in  the  available  tonnage.  The  Span- 
ish-American War  drew  from  the  Lakes  a  large  number  of  wage 
earners 15  and  attracted  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  numerous  lake 
bulk  freighters.16  At  the  same  time  the  boom  period  on  the 
Lakes,  following  the  return  of  prosperity  in  the  late  nineties, 
created  an  unprecedented  demand  for  both  boats  and  men.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  dispatch  in  loading  and  unloading  boats 
and  time  study  in  running  the  boats  were  greatly  increasing  the 
possible  annual  carrying  capacity,  ore  freights  rose  from  $.61 
per  ton  in  1898  to  $.95  in  1899.  Other  freights  rose  in  pro- 
portion. 

Such  freight  rates  on  tonnage  approximately  as  great  as  that 
in  1896  made  the  year  1899  by  far  the  most  prosperous  ever 
experienced  by  the  vessel  owners.  The  increasing  demand  for 
iron  and  steel  products  indicated  a  banner  year  for  1900.  As 
stated  above,  the  Bessemer  Steamship  Company  was  guaranteed 
an  annual  tonnage  of  1,200,000  tons  by  the  Carnegie  Steel  Com- 
pany at  the  going  rate  for  the  season.  Anticipating  a  capacity 
demand  for  vessel  tonnage  in  1900,  the  Rockefeller  interests  be- 
gan as  early  as  October,  1899,  to  charter  all  available  boats  for 
the  following  season.17  The  knowledge  of  this  fact  in  itself 
forced  up  charter  rates  for  1900.  In  addition,  boats  represent- 
ing a  total  capacity  of  100,000  tons  were  held  at  the  docks  by 

is  These  are  average  freights  from  the  mines  at  the  head  of  Lake  Su- 
perior to  the  receiving  ports  on  Lake  Erie. 

i* In  December,  1897,  the  executive  committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  discussed  a  change  in  the  by-laws  of  the  association  to  permit 
the  adoption  of  minimum  freight  rates  for  the  following  season.  This  ef- 
fort to  fix  freight  rates  by  the  association,  like  previous  similar  attempts 
in  the  same  direction,  failed.  Marine  Review,  Dec.  9,  1897,  p.  7. 

is  Ibid.,  June  16,  1898,  p.  8. 

is  Marine  Eecord,  Mar.  16,  1899,  p.  10. 

17  Ibid.,  Oct.  26,  1899,  p.  7. 


28  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [178 

the  Bessemer  Steamship  Company  in  June,  1900,  and  another 
increase  was  effected.18  The  rate  for  1900,  corresponding  to 
those  already  quoted,  was  $1.05  per  ton  —  an  increase  of  $.10 
over  1899.  During  the  same  year  freights  on  coal  and  grain 
fell  as  follows :  hard  coal  —  Buffalo  to  Chicago,  $.73  to  $.48  per 
ton ;  soft  coal  —  Ohio  ports  to  Milwaukee,  $.69  to  $.45  per  ton ; 
and  wheat  — Duluth  to  Buffalo,  $.036  to  $.020  per  bushel.19 

The  reaction  which  resulted  from  this  demonstration  of  the 
ability  of  the  Rockefeller  fleet  to  control  freight  rates  on  iron 
ore  brought  about  important  changes  in  the  control  of  lake  traf- 
fic and  in  the  relations  of  the  vessel  owners  to  the  men  employed 
upon  the  boats. 

There  had  always  been  a  fairly  constant  relationship  between 
the  wages  of  one  class  of  men  on  the  boats  and  those  of  each  of 
the  other  classes.  So  that  to  the  vessel  owner  one  union  strong 
enough  to  maintain  wages  or  to  force  increases  was  as  undesir- 
able as  an  effective  union  for  each  class  of  employees.  Up  to 
this  time  the  seamen's  union  had  occasioned  most  annoyance  to 
the  owners.  When  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  had  ended 
their  campaign  of  1893  against  this  union  the  only  barrier  be- 
tween the  vessel  owner  and  his  right  to  manage  his  boat  as  he 
saw  fit  had  been  removed.  In  the  absence  of  any  effective  labor 
organization,  the  owners  had  little  trouble  in  reducing  wages. 
The  reductions  from  1893  to  1897  were  as  follows: 20 

WAGES  PER  MONTH 

STEAMERS 

1893  1897 

First  mates $60-$80  $50-$75 

Second  mates 45-60  40-50 

Wheelsmen 30-37.50  25-30 

Watchmen  and  lookoutsmen 30-  37.50  25-  30 

Deckhands 15-20  15 

Chief  engineers 

First   class  boats 115-125  105 

Second  class  boats 100-115  90 

Third  class  boats 80-100  60-  75 

i&  Marine  Record,  June  7,  1900,  p.  11. 
is  Marine  Review,  Dec.  26,  1907,  p.  23. 

20  From  data  compiled  for  the  writer  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers'  Association. 


179]  GROWING   CONCENTRATION  29 

Second  engineers 

First  class  boats 75-  80  70 

Second  class  boats 70-  75  65 

Third  class  boats 60-  70  50 

Firemen 30-37.50  25-30 

Oilers 30-37.50  30 

Chief  cooks 45-  55  40-  50 

Second  cooks  and  helpers , 15-  20  12-  15 

SAIL-BOATS  AND  CONSORTS 

First  mates 45-60  30-45 

Second  mates 35-  45  35 

Cooks  30-37.50  25-32 

Seamen 30-37.50  20-30 

Deckhands  and  boys 15-  20  13-  17 

The  wages  for  1898  were  the  same  as  for  1897.  By  1898  the 
general  unrest  among  the  wage-earners  on  the  Lakes  had  taken 
the  form  of  increased  union  activity  and  membership  in  all  lake 
organizations  grew  very  rapidly.  The  heavy  enlistments  in  the 
Spanish-American  War  took  many  workers  from  the  boats  and 
perhaps  would  have  made  labor  scarce  even  in  a  normal  year. 
But  in  a  year  of  unusual  traffic  the  scarcity  of  men  was  very 
marked  and  gave  the  unions  considerable  advantage.  More 
wages  were  demanded  and  at  the  opening  of  navigation  in  1899 
the  following  wages  were  paid  as  compared  with  those  paid  in 
1898 :21 

WAGES  PER  MONTH 

STEAMERS 

1898 

First  mates $50-$75 

Second  mates 40—  50 

Wheelsmen  25-  30 

Watchmen  and  lookoutsmen 25—  30 

Deckhands 15 

Chief  engineer 

First  class  boats 105 

Second  class  boats 90 

Third  class  boats 60-75 

Second  engineer 

First  class  boats 70                    75 

Second  class  boats 65                    70 

Third  class  boats 50                    55 

21  From  data  compiled  for  the  writer  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers'  Association. 


30  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [180 

Firemen 25-  30  30-  35 

Oilers  30  35 

Chief  cooks 40-  50  45-  55 

Second  cooks  and  helpers 12—  15  17-  20 

SAIL-BOATS  AND  CONSORTS 

First  mates 30-  45  35-  50 

Second  mates 35  40 

Cooks 25-32  30-35 

Seamen 20-  30  25-  30 

The  success  of  this  wage  demand  gave  the  men  on  the  boats 
confidence  in  their  organizations  and  made  the  union  leaders 
conscious  of  their  power.  The  wages  paid  at  the  beginning  of 
1899  had  scarcely  restored  the  scale  paid  in  1893.22  Increases 
ranging  from  $2.00  to  $5.00  per  month  were  granted  to  all  em- 
ployees on  the  boats  below  the  licensed  officers  on  August  15, 
1899,  and  in  September  the  third  increase  for  the  year,  ranging 
from  $2.00  to  $22.00  per  month  and  applying  to  practically  all 
men  on  the  boats,  was  granted  to  take  effect  October  1,  1899. 23 
Again  at  the  opening  of  navigation  in  1900  the  employees  below 
the  licensed  officers  received  substantial  advances  over  the  high- 
est wages  paid  in  1899. 24  In  the  scramble  for  the  unusual  profits 
to  be  had  in  the  ore  carrying  trade,  the  owners  did  not  dare 
risk  a  tieup  of  their  boats  in  a  strike.  Hence  the  demands  of  the 
unions  met  no  organized  opposition  and  indeed  but  little  objec- 
tion from  individual  owners. 

In  order  to  understand  the  development  of  union  policies  at 
this  time,  a  brief  summary  of  the  history  of  the  labor  organiza- 
tions on  the  Lakes  is  necessary.  The  history  of  the  Lake  Sea- 
men's Union  has  already  been  traced  to  1896.  In  its  reorgan- 
ization after  its  third  disruption  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation, it  definitely  abandoned  its  opposition  to  steam-boatmen 
and  depended  upon  this  class  of  men  for  increases  in  its  mem- 
bership. In  fact,  from  this  time  on  it  was  dominated  by  able 
seamen  who  worked  on  steam  vessels.  The  organization  of  deck- 
hands was  discussed  from  time  to  time,  but  it  was  not  until 
January,  1902,  that  a  majority  of  the  membership  of  the  union 

22  Marine  Record,  Aug.  17,  1899,  p.  13. 

23  Hid.,  Sept.  28,  1899,  p.  5. 

24  From  data  compiled  for  the  writer  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers'  Association. 


181  j  GROWING   CONCENTRATION  31 

was  made  to  see  that  every  deckhand  was  a  potential  wheels- 
man or  watchman,  especially  if  trouble  should  come  with  the 
owners.  Separate  organization  of  deckhands  was  discussed  for 
a  time  but  finally,  in  January,  1902,  it  was  voted  to  accept  them 
as  members  of  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  to  be  given  a  black 
book  or  ordinary  seamen's  book.25  Even  then  some  of  the  local 
unions  refused  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union  and  made  little  effort  to  join  the  deckhands  within  their 
jurisdiction.  At  the  same  time  the  deckhands  were  not  easily 
organized.  Being  a  shifting  conglomerate  of  tramps,  criminals, 
school  boys,  and  young  men  who  had  some  expectation  of  fol- 
lowing the  Lakes  for  a  living,  the  changes  from  deckhands  to 
able  seamen  and  the  desertions  from  the  boats  to  enter  some 
other  work  made  it  almost  impossible  to  gather  together  and  to 
hold  such  men  in  a  union.  Hence  for  a  year  after  it  was  voted 
to  accept  deckhands  to  membership  in  the  union  all  efforts  to 
organize  them  failed. 

With  the  increase  in  the  number  and  size  of  steam-boats  on 
the  Lakes,  there  developed  the  need  for  organization  of  firemen 
and  engineers.  The  first  firemen's  union  was  formed  at  Cleve- 
land, April  12,  1888.  On  April  28  of  the  same  year  a  similar 
organization  was  formed  at  Buffalo.  These  two  organizations 
were  unaffiliated  except  as  they  had  mutual  interests  in  the 
Knights  of  Labor.  In  1891  the  firemen  withdrew  from  the 
Knights  of  Labor  and  incorporated  in  the  State  of  New  York 
under  the  name  of  Marine  Firemen,  Oilers  and  "Water  Tenders' 
Benevolent  Association  of  the  Great  Lakes.  This  charter  was 
retained  until  1898. 26  During  these  ten  years  the  methods  em- 
ployed by  the  firemen  in  dealing  with  their  employers  were  very 
similar  to  those  employed  by  the  seamen.  As  a  rule  the  fire- 
men were  as  difficult  to  organize  as  were  the  deckhands  and 
because  the  nature  of  their  work  demanded  on  the  whole  a  hard- 
ier set  of  men  they  were  perhaps  even  more  difficult  to  manage. 

The  firemen's  union  was  always  numerically  weak  and  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  had  even  less  difficulty  in  subduing 
them  than  in  keeping  the  seamen  quiet.  In  1899  the  firemen 
numbered  but  300.  They  had  applied  several  times  for  admit- 

25  Proceedings  Lake  Seamen 's  Union,  1902,  p.  16. 

26  Ibid.,  1906,  pp.  94-95. 


32  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [182 

tance  to  the  seamen's  union,  but  the  sailors  looked  upon  the 
firemen  with  the  same  contempt  as  they  applied  to  the  deckhands 
and  refused  the  applicants  admittance.  In  1899  the  firemen  af- 
filiated with  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association  and 
under  the  leadership  of  this  organization  increased  in  numbers 
very  rapidly. 

Previous  to  1902  the  cooks  had  no  lake  union.  In  the  days  of 
sail-boat  supremacy,  very  often  the  cooks  were  members  of  the 
seamen's  union.  Those  employed  on  steam-boats  in  1901  who 
were  members  of  any  labor  organization  belonged  either  to  the 
Hotel  and  Restaurant  Employees'  International  Association  or 
to  the  Bartenders'  International  League  of  America.  Outside 
of  the  Buffalo  local,  the  marine  cooks  formed  the  minority  in 
these  organizations.  In  1900  and  again  in  1901  the  Lake  Sea- 
men's Union  tried  to  organize  the  cooks  on  the  lake  boats,  but 
the  opposition  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  prevented. 
In  February,  1902,  the  Marine  Cooks'  Association  of  the  Great 
Lakes  was  formed  at  Cleveland.27  Early  in  1903  this  union 
called  a  general  convention  of  all  cooks  on  the  Lakes  to  meet  in 
Detroit.  It  was  here  decided  to  withdraw  from  the  hotel  em- 
ployees' and  bartenders'  unions  and  to  affiliate  with  the  Lake 
Seamen's  Union. 

The  first  union  of  steam-boat  engineers  on  the  Lakes  was 
formed  at  Buffalo  in  February,  1854,  to  resist  a  reduction  in 
wages.28  The  movement  was  successful  and  the  union  continued 
in  existence  until  1857.  By  this  time  wages  were  satisfactory 
and  union  activity  was  permitted  to  lapse.  "Wages  were  re- 
duced in  each  of  the  two  years  following  the  breakup  of  the 
union.  When  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  "War  failed  to  restore 
wages  to  their  former  level,  the  union  was  reorganized  on  Feb- 
ruary 25,  1863,  and  a  considerable  increase  in  wages  was  ob- 
tained. Buffalo  was  at  this  time  the  centre  of  Lake  Erie  ship- 
ping and  it  was  not  until  several  years  later  that  the  operation 
of  steam-boats  became  an  important  trade  at  other  lake  ports. 

The  lake  engineers  joined  in  the  movement  for  the  organ- 
ization of  the  National  Marine  Engineers'  Association  of  the 

27  Marine  Record,  Mar.  20,  1902,  p.  8. 

28  Proceedings    Marine    Engineers'    Benevolent    Association,    1899,    pp. 
101-2. 


183]  GROWING   CONCENTRATION  33 

United  States  of  America  which-  was  formed  at  Cleveland,  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1875. 29  This  association  was  not  a  wage  regulating1 
union  at  the  time  of  its  organization,  although  from  the  begin- 
ning a  minority  of  its  members  insisted  that  the  regulation  of 
the  wages  of  its  members  should  be  one  of  its  objects.  It  con- 
tinued as  a  benevolent  and  fraternal  association  and  in  1882  it 
amended  its  constitution  to  prohibit  any  subordinate  association 
from  dealing  with  the  question  of  wages.30  To  make  this  policy 
of  the  association  clear,  the  name  of  the  organization  was  changed 
the  following  year  to  National  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent 
Association.31 

Indirectly,  however,  the  actions  of  the  association  did  influence 
wages.  For  example,  an  applicant  for  the  government  license 
required  of  engineers  must  be  recommended  by  two  men  who 
already  held  such  licenses.  As  early  as  1885  the  association 
voted  that  its  members  must  not  sign  such  applications  until 
given  permission  to  do  so  by  the  nearest  subordinate  association.32 
The  association  has  also  given  much  attention  to  legislation  af- 
fecting lake  navigation,  the  number  of  men  required  by  law  to 
man  the  boats,  etc.,  so  that  by  these  means  it  has  influenced  the 
supply  of  available  engineers  on  the  Lakes  and  hence,  indirectly, 
wages. 

At  various  times  —  as  in  1895  and  in  1899  —  the  association 
took  a  direct  stand  for  wage  increases.33  It  was  not  until  the 
latter  year,  however,  that  the  trade  union  minority  became  the 
majority  and  brought  about  a  definite  change  in  the  policy  of 

29  Proceedings  National  Marine  Engineers'  Association,  1875,  p.  4. 

so  Ibid.,  1882,  p.  28. 

si  Proceedings  National  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association,  1883, 
p.  77.  With  this  definite  statement  of  policy  concerning  wages  came  a 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  vessel  owners  toward  the  association.  For- 
merly opposed  to  it  because  some  of  the  local  associations  carried  on  minor 
strikes,  the  owners  now  gave  their  support  to  the  association  and  in  some 
instances  refused  to  hire  engineers  who  were  not  members. 

32  Ibid.,  1885,  p.  320. 

as  In  1895  the  president  of  the  union  asked  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation for  a  wage  conference  but  was  refused.  Marine  Review,  Feb.  7, 
1895,  p.  10.  In  1899  the  union  took  part  in  the  general  demand  for  wage 
increases  on  the  boats  and  after  threats  to  strike  secured  an  advance  of 
20  per  cent,  to  take  effect  October  1,  1899.  Proceedings  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association,  1900,  pp.  210,  329,  330. 


34  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [184 

the  organization.  This  change  is  best  shown  by  the  address  of 
president  of  the  association  in  his  annual  report  delivered  Jan- 
uary 22,  1900.  In  discussing  the  futility  of  depending  entirely 
upon  legislation  and  the  need  for  a  change  in  the  policy  of  the 
association  he  said  in  part:8* 

The  policy  that  for  years  has  dominated  our  methods  and  procedures  in 
their  application  to  the  establishment  and  continuance  of  suitable  and  just 
recompense  for  our  labor,  hours  of  service,  and  assistance  in  our  particular 
department,  has  outlived  its  usefulness  and  the  policy  of  conservatism  and 
reserve  is  no  longer  sufficient  to  meet  the  conditions  that  they  once  over- 
came, for  the  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  owners,  managers,  agents  and 
others  to  be  just  and  fair,  has  given  way  in  a  majority  of  instances,  to 
arrogant  spirit  of  selfish  presumption  that  can  be  met  only  by  the  defiant 
courage  of  a  body  of  men  who  have  not  yet  forgotten  that  we  have  as  much 
right  to  name  our  price,  as  the  great  trusts  of  the  present  day  have  to  offer 
remuneration  that  hereafter  can  only  be  spurned  as  not  worthy  of  considera- 
tion, and  which  can  only  be  interpreted  as  an  attack  upon  the  value,  use- 
fulness and  integrity  of  a  profession,  without  which  they  cannot  operate, 
and  who  will  hereafter  see  to  it  that  they  are  recognized  in  all  matters 
where  their  interests  are  involved,  or  where  their  comfort,  their  manhood, 
and  their  self-respect  are  at  stake.  .  . 

The  people  with  whom  we  are  dealing  must  be  made  to  understand  that 
the  Marine  Engineers  of  this  country  have  discarded  the  swaddling  clothes 
of  timidity,  humiliation  and  fear,  and  that  they  stand  forth  today,  happy  in 
the  knowledge  that  the  door  of  opportunity  stands  wide  open,  that  at  last 
they  are  awake,  and  henceforth  will  work  under  conditions  that  will  in  a 
sense,  guarantee  some  adequate  return  for  the  responsibilities,  dangers,  dis- 
comforts, and  distress  of  our  profession. 

This  declaration  launched  the  marine  engineers  upon  a  cam- 
paign as  a  militant  union  which  was  destined  to  give  vessel 
owners  much  concern  for  several  years. 

The  history  of  associations  of  captains  or  masters  up  to  this 
time  is  somewhat  like  the  history  of  the  Marine  Engineers' 
Benevolent  Association;  having  in  common  the  absence  of  ag- 
gressive unionism.  Formerly  mates  and  occasionally  a  captain 
who  did  not  own  his  boat  were  members  of  the  seamen's  union. 
This  was  not  the  general  practice  except  as  the  seamen  tried  on 
one  or  two  occasions  to  force  the  masters  into  their  union  in  or- 
der to  fortify  themselves  against  discrimination  by  the  owners 
since  the  master  hired  the  men. 

As  already  noted,  the  introduction  of  the  steam-boat,  involv- 
ing a  large  investment  of  capital  and  a  heavy  overhead  expense, 

3*  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association,  1900,  p.  210. 


GROWING   CONCENTRATION  35 

forced  a  change  in  methods  of  ^navigation  which  in  turn  de- 
manded a  different  type  of  men  to  command  the  boats.  The 
line  managers  at  Buffalo  were  the  first  to  insist  that  their  cap- 
tains obtain  more  knowledge  of  navigation  and  suggested  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  nautical  school  for  this  purpose.  The  masters 
rebelled  and  refused  to  be  considered  novices  at  their  trade  or  pro- 
fession. At  the  same  time  some  of  the  more  thoughtful  recog- 
nized the  change  taking  place  in  lake  navigation  and  offered  as  a 
substitute  an  association  of  the  masters  themselves.  According- 
ly, on  March  2,  1886,  the  Excelsior  Marine  Benevolent  Associa- 
tion was  formed  by  the  captains  at  Buffalo.35  One  of  the  ob- 
jects of  the  new  association  was  ' '  to  discuss  matters  of  benefit  to 
those  in  our  calling,  so  as  to  make  us  more  desirable  to  the  owner 
of  the  craft  we  navigate."  In  1887  organizers  were  sent  out  to 
other  ports  and  other  locals  were  formed.36  In  1891  a  general 
organization  was  formed,  retaining  the  name  of  the  original 
Buffalo  local.  In  1893  the  name  was  changed  to  Ship  Masters' 
Association.87  Except  for  its  beneficial  features,  this  associa- 
tion has  always  been  more  closely  identified  with  the  owners' 
associations  on  the  Lakes  than  with  the  marine  trade  unions. 

Parallel  with  this  association  another  and  more  inclusive  or- 
ganization developed,  including  in  its  membership  masters  and 
mates  on  the  Lakes.  On  January  17,  1887,  the  American 
Brotherhood  of  Steamboat  Pilots  was  formed  in  New  York  City 
as  a  benevolent  and  fraternal  association.38  In  1893  its  name 
was  changed  to  American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots.  For 
some  time  it  gained  little  support  on  the  Lakes  because  of  the 
success  of  the  Ship  Masters'  Association.  The  latter  soon  came 
to  be  influenced  largely  by  the  boat  owners,  many  of  whom  had 
once  been  captains  and  members  of  the  association.  Some  of 
these  retained  their  membership  even  after  leaving  the  boats. 

35  Beers,  op.  cit.,  p.  491.  The  organization  of  this  association  did  not 
immediately  satisfy  the  owners,  however,  for  during  the  same  year  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  started  a  school  for  masters  and  mates  at  Buf- 
falo and  gave  serious  consideration  to  a  proposal  not  to  hire  in  1887  any 
but  those  who  could  pass  the  examination  conducted  by  their  school.  An- 
nual Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1886,  p.  9. 

se  Beers,  op.  cit.,  p.  492-3. 

37  Marine  Review,  Jan.  26,  1893,  p.  6. 

ss  Beers,  op.  tit.,  p.  495. 


36  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [186 

Other  owners  were  warm  personal  friends  of  members  of  the 
association  and  through  their  friendship  helped  to  influence  the 
policy  of  the  organization.  Gradually,  as  the  Ship  Masters'  As- 
sociation became  more  conservative,  and  as  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Masters  and  Pilots  became  more  radical  and  wage- 
conscious,  the  latter  seemed  to  many  masters  on  the  Lakes  to 
more  nearly  meet  the  needs  of  their  calling  and  it  gained  in 
strength.  Especially  was  this  true  in  1899  and  the  following 
years  when  the  general  labor  unrest  on  the  boats  spread  to  many 
of  the  younger  captains  and  mates.39  Other  short-lived  frater- 
nal and  benevolent  associations  of  masters  and  mates  on  the 
Lakes,  such  as  the  Whales  or  the  Lake  Pilots'  Aid  Association, 
had  ceased  to  exist  by  1899  and  hence  had  no  influence  upon  the 
period  of  trade  agreements  which  began  at  this  time. 


89  Marine  Eecord,  Jan.  31,  1901,  p.  7;  Feb.  28,  1901,  p.  8;  March  14, 
1901,  p.  7;  July  18,  1901,  p.  6;  etc. 


CHATER  III 
TRADE  AGREEMENTS 

At  the  time  of  the  amalgamation  of  the  Cleveland  Vessel 
Owners'  Association  and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  each 
was  composed  of  fleets  aggregating  about  300,000  tons.  During 
the  first  year  of  the  reorganized  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  the 
enrolled  tonnage  was  as  follows : 1 

Number  of  Boats     Tonnage 

Steamers   360  430,880 

Schooners 255  149,039 


Total 615  579,919 

This  tonnage  increased  to  842,248  in  1900.2  In  the  meantime 
the  character  of  enrolled  ships  underwent  a  great  change.  The 
schooners  largely  dropped  out  of  the  association  as  did  also  the 
steam-boats  under  1200  tons  and  the  fleets  composed  entirely  of 
vessels  under  1400  tons.3  By  1900  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion had  became  an  organization  of  ore  carrying  boats  and  the 
schooners  and  smaller  steam-boats  had  been  relegated  to  the 
lumber  trade. 

In  1897  the  Bessemer  Steamship  Company,  with  a  tonnage  of 
48,661,  constituted  but  7  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association;  while  the  eight  largest  fleets  in  the  asso- 
ciation made  up  less  than  one-third  of  its  tonnage.  By  1900 
the  Bessemer  fleet  had  increased  to  114,964  tons  which  was  but 
13.6  per  cent  of  the  enrolled  tonnage  of  the  association.  Never- 
theless the  appearance  of  the  Bessemer  fleet  was  the  signal  for 
opposition  on  the  part  of  independent  vessel  owners  who  feared 
a  Rockefeller-Carnegie  combination  which  would  deprive  them 
of  their  business.  The  steel  producers,  with  the  notable  excep- 

1  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1893,  p.  3. 

2  Marine  Eecord,  Jan.  17,  1901,  p.  10. 

s  Ibid.,  Jan.  18,  1900,  p.  20;  Jan.  16,  1902,  p.  13. 

37 


38  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [188 

tion  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  had  for  a  number  of  years 
carried  a  part  of  their  own  ore  and  collectively  had  exerted 
enough  influence  upon  lake  traffic  to  defeat  previous  attempts 
by  the  independents  to  regulate  ore  freight  rates.  But  when 
freights  fell  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  history  of  lake  traffic  in 
1897  and  1898,  the  independent  vessel  owners  gave  an  undue 
share  of  the  blame  to  the  Bessemer  Steamship  Company  and 
again  planned  to  regulate  ore  rates.4  In  the  rush  for  a  share 
of  the  great  profits  which  resulted  from  carrying  ore  during  the 
two  prosperous  years  which  followed,  the  plan  was  abandoned. 

The  temporary  success  of  the  Rockefeller  interests  in  boosting 
freights  in  1899  prompted  the  formation  of  the  Pittsburg  Steam- 
ship Company  by  the  Carnegie  interests  at  the  close  of  that 
season.5  Starting  with  six  boats  at  the  beginning  of  the  follow- 
ing season,  it  soon  increased  the  number  to  twelve  and  planned 
the  building  of  a  ship-yard  at  Conneaut.  Although  the  Rocke- 
feller interests  had  succeeded  in  maintaining  an  artificial  stand- 
ard of  freight  rates,  the  high  charter  fees  paid  to  the  inde- 
pendents had  absorbed  most  of  the  profits.  This  fact,  together 
with  this  possibility  of  a  rival  Carnegie  fleet,  induced  the  Rocke- 
feller interests  to  sell  out  to  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  in 
August,  1900.6 

Then  came  the  organization  of  the  United  State  Steel  Corpora- 
tion. "When  first  announced  nothing  was  said  about  the  pur- 
chase of  mines  or  boats,  but  in  March,  1901,  it  was  announced 
that  the  former  Rockefeller  interests  on  the  Lakes,  including 
the  Bessemer  Steamship  Company,  had  been  absorbed  by  the 
Steel  Corporation.7  In  addition  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Com- 
pany, the  Steel  Corporation  fleet,  purchased  other  fleets  so  that 
in  1901  it  owned  112  boats  having  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  285,- 

*  The  real  basis  for  complaint  by  the  independents  was  the  f act  that 
their  boats  have  always  been  used  merely  to  carry  ore  which  the  boats 
owned  by  the  furnace  interests  cannot  handle.  In  a  dull  season  such  as 
1897  it  could  easily  happen  that  the  furnace  interests  could  carry  all  the 
ore  they  needed.  Their  boats  were  kept  busy  during  both  dull  and  heavy 
seasons,  while  they  employed  outside  tonnage  only  when  the  demands  for 
ore  exceeded  their  own  carrying  capacity. 

5  Marine  Eecord,  Nov.  16,  1899,  p.  11. 

e  Ibid.,  Aug.  16,  1900,  p.  6. 

T  Ibid.,  Mar.  21,  1901,  p.  6. 


189]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  39 

565  tons,  or  33  per  cent  of  all 'tonnage  enrolled  in  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association.8 

Having  absorbed  the  Rockefeller  fleet  and  finding  the  inde- 
pendents fighting  each  other  for  charters,  the  reorganized  Pitts- 
burg  Steamship  Company  had  little  difficulty  in  ruling  ore 
freights  in  1901.  The  independents  again  discussed  combination 
to  maintain  rates,  but  the  uncertainty  of  securing  charters  for1 
all,  in  the  presence  of  a  single  shipper  owning  a  fleet  with  a 
carrying  capacity  of  more  than  one-third  of  the  ore  to  be  brought 
down  the  Lakes  caused  a  rush  for  charters  instead.9  As  a  result 
ore  freights  fell  from  $1.05  in  1900  to  $.84  in  1901,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  boats  were  held  at  the  dock  until  the  middle  of 
May  by  the  engineers'  strike.10  During  the  year  the  absolute 
power  of  the  new  fleet  was  demonstrated  when  independent 
vessels  were  held  up  at  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  docks  to 
permit  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company's  boats  to  exercise 
greater  dispatch  in  loading  and  unloading  their  cargoes.11 
These  delays  caused  considerable  loss  to  the  independent  owners. 
Nevertheless  the  independents  were  largely  dependent  upon  the 
Steel  Corporation  for  their  cargoes  so  that  they  dared  not  com- 
plain. A  further  decrease  to  $.76  per  ton  was  experienced  in 
1902. 

Vessel  owners  had  never  been  regular  attendants  at  the  meet- 
ings of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  leaving  the  management 
in  the  hands  of  the  executive  officers.  In  fact,  the  association 
had  existed  only  from  year  to  year.  Not  all  of  its  membership 
was  constant  and  members  withdrew  from  or  joined  the  associa- 
tion according  as  its  policy  displeased  or  pleased  them.12  This 
was  especially  true  of  the  independents  in  regard  to  the  labor 
policy  of  the  association.  One  of  the  greatest  offenders  in  this 
respect  was  the  owner  of  the  largest  independent  fleet,  a  man  who 
in  1901  controlled  over  11  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  the  asso- 

s  The  total  tonnage  in  1901  was  874,203  tons.  Annual  Report  Lake 
Carriers'  Association,  1901,  pp.  19-20. 

a  Marine  Record,  Apr.  11,  1901,  p.  7. 

"Also  ore  shipments  were  nearly  8  per  cent  greater  in  1901  than  in 
1900. 

11  Ibid.,  Dec.  5,  1901,  p.  7. 

12  Proceedings  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  passim. 


40  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [190 

elation.13  If  an  increase  in  wages  was  granted  by  the  association, 
and  he  believed  he  could  secure  non-union  men  at  lower  terms, 
he  often  refused  to  abide  by  the  ruling  of  the  association  and 
withdrew  for  a  time.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an  increase  in  wages 
was  demanded  and  refused  and  a  tie-up  of  traffic  was  threatened, 
he  never  failed  to  grant  the  union's  demands  if  by  so  doing  he 
could  operate  his  boats  and  secure  profits  while  others  were  idle 
at  the  dock.  In  this  policy  this  fleet  was  followed  by  others  of 
smaller  size  but  which,  taken  together,  at  times  forced  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association  to  change  its  decision. 

Being  a  purely  voluntary,  year-to-year  organization,  the  asso- 
ciation had  no  power  to  discipline  members  who  violated  its  rules 
or  refused  to  abide  by  majority  vote.  Meantime  the  power  of 
the  Steel  Corporation  as  a  boat  owner  was  feared  by  other  mem- 
bers of  the  association  and  the  organization  of  the  corporation's 
fleet  almost  disrupted  the  association.  Owning  the  most  up-to- 
date  boats  on  the  Lakes,  and  being  able  at  all  times  to  drive  their 
vessels  to  the  limit,  the  owners  of  this  fleet  expected  to  secure 
the  most  efficient  men  available  to  man  their  boats  and  were 
willing  to  pay  high  wages  to  such  men.  Other  members  of  the 
association  recognized  that  a  standard  so  set  would  be  forced  up- 
on them  also.  Hence  they  sought  a  means  to  control  the  pay- 
ment of  wages  to  all  employees  on  the  Lakes.  A  third  factor 
which  aided  in  bringing  about  a  reorganization  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  was  the  growing  strength  of  the  unions,  in- 
cluding at  this  time  every  man  on  the  boats  from  the  captain 
down. 

The  Bessemer  Steamship  Company's  insistence  upon  a  busi- 
ness-like management  of  its  vessels  was  but  a  beginning  to  the 
changes  which  took  place  when  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion assumed  control  in  1901.  Captains  were  shifted  about  from 
boat  to  boat  in  the  interests  of  efficiency.14  They  were  no  longer 
permitted  to  hire  their  men  but  every  employee  on  the  boat, 
from  the  chief  engineer  to  the  deckhand,  was  supplied  by  the 
management  on  shore.  It  had  been  customary  for  the  captain, 
upon  reaching  a  port  near  his  home,  to  visit  his  family  while  his 
boat  was  being  loaded  or  unloaded.  Now  this  privilege  was  de- 
is  Proceedings  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1901,  p.  18. 
i*  Marine  Record,  June  20,  1901,  p.  6. 


191]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  41 

nied  him  and  he  was  not  permitted  to  leave  port  except  by  per- 
mission of  his  manager.15  In  these  and  other  ways  the  reins 
over  the  captain  were  gradually  tightened  until  he  came  to  feel 
that  he  had  no  greater  privileges  or  authority  and  was  considered 
of  no  greater  importance  than  a  deckhand. 

At  its  annual  convention  in  January,  1901,  the  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association  made  a  new  classification  of 
lake  boats,16  involving  a  demand  for  more  help  in  the  engine 
room  and  a  considerable  increase  in  wages.17  The  demands  were 
presented  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  on  January  26,  1901. 
At  first  they  were  ignored  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  but 
later  the  president  of  the  union  was  told  that  he  must  deal  with 
the  individual  owners.18  Being  protected  by  their  licenses  so 
that  strike  breakers  could  not  be  secured  to  take  their  places,  the 
union  set  a  date  for  settlement  and  threatened  increased  demands 
if  their  original  terms  were  not  complied  with.  A  strike  was 
called  on  February  27  and  owners  outside  of  the  association 
hastened  to  accept  the  classification  proposed  by  the  union.19 
Members  of  the  association  were  more  hesitant  about  accepting 
the  union's  terms  but  by  May  all  of  the  owners,  acting  individ- 
ually and  including  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  had 
made  peace  with  the  union  upon  terms  which  gave  its  members 
all  their  original  demands  and  a  wage  scale  considerably  in  ad- 
vance of  that  at  first  submitted.20 

To  prevent  a  repetition  of  such  a  strike,  the  Pittsburg  Steam- 
ship Company,  at  the  close  of  the  season  of  1901,  asked  its  en- 
gineers to  sign  individual  contracts  which  would  permit  it  to 
hold  back  the  first  month's  pay  in  order  to  insure  continuous 

18  Marine  Record,  Sept.  5,  1901,  p.  7. 

is  Formerly  this  was  done  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  alone, 
without  consulting  with  any  of  the  employees.  Marine  Record,  Jan.  31, 
1901,  p.  10. 

17  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association,  1901,  p.  159. 

is  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1901,  p.  10. 

is  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association,  1901,  p.  233. 

20  Marine  Record,  May  2,  1901,  p.  7.  Aside  from  increases  in  wages,  the 
chief  gain  for  the  union  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  assistants  on 
the  boats.  In  discussing  this  gain  the  president  of  the  union  said: 
•''Steamers  that  have  never  carried  oilers  are  now  carrying  one,  and  in 
many  cases  two."  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Associa- 
ti^n,  1901,  p.  244. 


42  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [192 

service  throughout  the  season.21  The  officials  of  the  union  ad- 
vised against  this  policy,  fearing  that  a  few  contracts  might  pre- 
vent any  aggressive  action  by  the  organization.  In  spite  of  this 
warning  a  small  number  of  contracts  were  signed  for  the  season 
of  1902.  However,  they  were  not  numerous  enough  to  warrant 
any  wage  reductions  by  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  in  case 
any  such  action  was  contemplated.  In  addition  to  these  con- 
tracts, the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  declared  a  bonus  to 
their  engineers  for  the  season  of  1901,  ranging  in  amount  from 
$77  to  $100,  to  be  paid  when  the  engineer  had  actually  started 
to  work  for  the  season  of  1902.22 

Neither  the  Ship  Masters'  Association  nor  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Masters  and  Pilots  took  any  part  in  the  engineers' 
strike  of  1901. 23  After  failing  to  induce  either  of  these  asso- 
ciations to  act,  a  small  number  of  captains,  some  of  whom  were 
members  of  one  or  both  of  these  organizations,  formed  a  new 
organization  in  March,  1901,  to  help  the  engineers.  They  called 
it  the  Ship  Masters'  Protective  Association.24  It  did  not  gain 
sufficient  strength  of  numbers  to  be  of  use  to  the  engineers  and 
after  the  settlement  of  the  strike  it  disbanded. 

Under  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Pittsburg  Steamship 
Company  throughout  the  season  of  1901,  the  captains  became 
more  and  more  dissatisfied  and  the  hitherto  small  minority  in 
favor  of  a  trade  union  began  to  increase  in  strength.  Through- 
out the  season  unionism  was  urged  until  by  fall  the  masters  and 
mates  on  the  Lakes  were  pulling  in  three  directions:  Those  in 
control  of  the  Ship  Masters'  Association  constituted  the  con- 
servative wing  and  advocated  closer  relations  with  owners  rather 
than  any  action  which  would  incur  their  enmity.  Those  in  con- 
trol of  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  proposed 
sufficient  action  to  restore  to  the  master  his  former  authority  on 
the  boat,  but  without  at  the  same  time  forcing  him  to  sacrifice  his 
individual  rights  in  dealing  with  his  employer.  The  radical 
wing  proposed  the  withdrawal  of  the  lake  members  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  and  the  reorganiaztion  of 

21  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association,  1902,  p.  252. 

22  Marine  Record,  Jan.  23,  1902,  p.  7. 

23  Ibid.,  Mar.  21,  1901,  p.  7. 
2*  Ibid.,  Mar.  7,  1901,  p.  6. 


193]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  43 

the  Ship  Masters'  Protective  Association  on  distinctly  trade 
union  lines.25  At  the  beginning  of  the  season  of  1902  such  reor- 
ganization was  actually  attempted  but  again  failed  to  gain  suffi- 
cient support  to  make  it  effective.28 

At  the  opening  of  navigation  in  1902  the  firemen  demanded 
an  increase  in  wages.27  The  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  took 
the  initiative  in  calling  a  conference  of  vessel  owners  to  take 
some  action  in  reaching  an  agreement  with  the  firemen.  Some  of 
the  owners  objected  to  this  method  of  procedure  as  did  the  union 
members  who  feared  that  the  lack  of  responsibility  on  the  part 
of  the  owners,  meeting  informally,  would  not  insure  the  accept- 
ance of  a  new  scale  by  all  vessel  owners.  It  was  finally  decided 
to  leave  the  settlement  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and  the 
union.  Since  the  association  had  no  power  to  discipline  its  mem- 
bers in  case  of  violation  of  its  rules,  the  settlement  as  finally 
agreed  upon  made  the  individual  owners  rather  than  the  asso- 
ciation responsible  for  the  faithful  observance  of  its  terms.  The 
agreement  fixed  wages  at  $45.00  per  month  until  September  1, 
and  at  $52.50  per  month  for  the  remainder  of  the  season.28 

The  firemen  had  acted  independently  in  this  matter  and  had 
not  consulted  the  seamen.  Hence  the  latter  were  not  included 
in  the  advance  promised  for  September  1.  Spring  wages  for 
seamen  were  $45.00  for  able  seamen  and  $25.00  for  deckhands.29 
The  latter  were  not  members  of  the  seamen's  union  at  that  time. 
Although  it  was  customary  to  raise  wages  in  the  fall,  the  seamen 
had  no  assurance  of  an  increase  as  had  the  firemen.  When  Sep- 
tember came  the  seamen  too  demanded  an  advance  to  $52.50  and 
were  at  first  refused.30  But  realizing  the  strength  of  the  union 
and  the  inability  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  hold  to- 
gether in  case  of  a  threatened  tie-up  of  their  boats,  the  owners 
granted  the  demand  to  take  effect  October  1.  The  seamen  were 
asked  to  make  the  new  scale  rule  for  the  remainder  of  the  season. 
This  request  was  refused.  Instead,  on  November  1  they  de- 

25  Marine  Record,  Dec.  26,  1901,  p.  6. 
28  Ibid.,  Jan.  30,  1902,  p.  11. 

27  Ibid.,  March  20,  1902,  p.  7. 

28  Ibid.,  Mar.  27,  1902,  p.  11. 

29  From  data  furnished  the  writer  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers'  Association. 

so  Marine  Review,  Sept.  4,  1902,  p.  26. 


44  WAGE  BARGAINING  ON   LAKES  [194 

manded  and  received  another  advance  to  $60.00  per  month.31 
Although  the  fireman  had  agreed  to  finish  the  season  at  $52.50, 
this  second  advance  to  the  seamen  called  for  an  equal  advance 
to  the  firemen  to  prevent  a  strike  by  that  union. 

Anticipating  the  final  outcome  of  the  growing  strength  of  the 
labor  organizations  on  the  Lakes  in  1899  and  1900,  the  owners, 
at  the  end  of  the  latter  season,  sought  a  means  of  counteracting 
union  activity.  In  December,  plans  were  laid  to  form  an  or- 
ganization to  include  all  men  employed  on  the  boats;  such  or- 
ganization to  be  managed  and  controlled  by  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  under  the  name  of  Lake  Carriers'  Beneficial  Feder- 
ation.32 In  order  to  overcome  expected  opposition  from  union 
leaders  it  was  proposed  that  this  federation  be  a  sort  of  accident 
insurance  association  and  that  membership  in  it  would  not  debar 
an  employee  from  membership  in  any  other  organization.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  expected  that  membership  in  such  an  or- 
ganization would  insure  greater  loyalty  to  employers  and  greater 
continuity  of  service  on  the  boats.  In  one  of  his  letters  to  the 
vessel  owners,  explaining  the  benefits  of  the  federation  to  the 
employers,  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  made 
it  clear  that  the  owners  would  be  expected  to  give  preference  in 
employment  on  their  boats  to  holders  of  benefit  books  and  that 
"unfaithfulness"  in  service  would  cause  the  forfeiture  of  the 
book  and  all  claims  to  the  fund.33 

The  plan  for  the  federation  was  definitely  announced  in  Jan- 
uary, 1901,  and  some  of  the  captains  were  notified  to  see  to  it 
that  the  men  on  their  boats  made  application  for  membership. 
Because  of  the  weakness  of  the  loose  organization  of  owners  in 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  it  was  announced  that  the  plan 
would  not  be  put  into  operation  unless  90  per  cent  of  the  owners 
agreed  to  it.34  The  engineers'  strike  in  the  spring  of  1901;  the 
very  outspoken  opposition  of  all  union  leaders,  backed  by  the 
almost  unanimous  union  sentiment  in  all  branches  of  labor  on 
the  boats;  the  growing  dissatisfaction  of  the  captains  and  the 
consequent  uncertainty  of  their  support  in  case  of  trouble  with 

si  Marine  Review,  Nov.  20,  1902,  p.  17. 

32  Contemporary  numbers  of  Marine  Review,  passim  and  pamphlet  en- 
titled Welfare  Plan,  issued  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  1909. 

33  Marine  Record,  Jan.  10,  1901,  p.  7. 
s*  IUd.,  Feb.  21,  1901,  p.  10. 


195]  TRADE   ARGEBMENTS  45 

the  other  employees;  and  the  independent  owners'  distrust  of 
Steel  Corporation  control  all  combined  to  defeat  the  plan.  When 
it  was  found  that  the  requisite  90  per  cent  of  the  vessel  owners 
were  unwilling  to  sanction  the  formation  of  the  federation,  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  announced  that  labor  conditions  ren- 
dered a  test  of  the  plan  "inexpedient"  at  that  time  and  that 
the  matter  would  be  held  in  abeyance ;  but  that  the  work  already 
done  ' '  will  be  available  in  the  future  if  the  time  shall  come  when 
the  members  of  the  Association  desire  to  revive  the  plan. ' ' 35 

Although  victorious  for  the  moment,  some  of  the  union  leaders 
foresaw  some  of  the  possibilities  of  a  revival  of  such  a  plan  by 
the  vessel  owners  and  immediately  increased  their  activities  in 
two  directions :  First,  to  increase  their  own  membership ;  and 
second,  to  get  into  closer  relationship  with  other  employees  en- 
gaged in  lake  traffic. 

Previous  to  this  time  the  relations  of  the  organizations  on  the 
Lakes  which  called  themselves  unions  had  been  cordial,  for  the 
most  part.  When  unionism  revived  in  Chicago  in  1877-1878  the 
man  most  instrumental  in  organizing  the  longshoremen  also  took 
the  initiative  in  organizing  the  seamen.  During  the  following 
decade  these  unions  usually  relied  upon  each  other  for  support 
in  time  of  strike.  At  the  beginning  of  the  season  of  1888  the 
formation  of  a  trades  council  of  lake  unions  was  discussed  but 
no  action  was  taken.36  Again  in  1890  when  the  Seamen's  As- 
sembly was  little  more  than  a  name  and  when  withdrawal  from 
the  Knights  of  Labor  was  under  discussion,  a  proposal  was  made 
to  the  longshoremen  for  the  formation  of  an  Interstate  Union  of 
Sailors,  Vessel  Loaders,  and  Unloaders.37  Before  the  plan  could 
be  adopted  the  seamen  withdrew  from  the  Knights  of  Labor  and 
for  a  time  succeeded  independently.  In  1891  both  the  longshore- 
men and  the  seamen  became  affiliated  with  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor.  The  cooperation  idea  continued  in  the  minds  of 
its  originators  but  now  became  federation  rather  than  amalgama- 
tion. 

This  idea  took  definite  form  in  December,  1891,  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Marine  Trades'  and  Labor  Council  of  the 

ss  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1901,  p.  10. 

36  Journal  of  Lake  Seamen  'a  Union,  in  ms.,  Feb.  28,  1888. 

37  Ibid.,  Dec.  9,  1890. 


46  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [196 

Great  Lakes,  including  in  its  membership  unions  of  longshore- 
men, ship  carpenters  and  caulkers,  salt  unloaders,  and  seamen. 
It  was  expected  that  the  unions  of  coal  shovelers  and  hoisters, 
iron  ore  trimmers,  grain  trimmers,  coal  unloaders,  and  marine 
engineers  would  join  also.  The  original  council  continued  an  in- 
different existence  for  four  years.  It  was  given  no  power  and 
while  its  advice  was  plentiful  not  even  the  delegates  who  framed 
its  resolutions  heeded  them  while  sitting  as  members  of  their 
own  unions.38 

In  the  meantime  the  longshoremen  had  formed  an  interna- 
tional union  in  1892.  The  seamen  in  the  same  year  had  formed 
the  International  Seamen 's  Union.  The  latter  had  given  up  their 
industrial  union  idea  of  including  in  their  organization  "every 
man  on  the  Great  Lakes  who  is  employed  in  any  capacity  con- 
nected with  the  Lakes"  and  had  but  gradually  indeed  permitted 
men  of  their  own  class  employed  upon  steam-boats  to  join  their 
organization.  On  the  other  hand,  the  longshoremen,  beginning  in 
1892  as  an  international  union  of  lumber  shovers,  had  steadily  ex- 
tended their  jurisdiction  until  by  1901  they  included  the  follow- 
ing trades :  lumber  handlers ;  coal  handlers ;  coal,  grain,  and  ore 
trimmers;  ore  handlers;  hoisters  and  engineers;  car  dumpers, 
pinchers  and  wall  trimmers;  freight  handlers;  grain  scoopers; 
marine  firemen,  oilers,  and  water  tenders;  stationary  dockfire- 
men ;  marine  divers,  helpers,  tenders  and  steam  pump  operators ; 
top  dock  men;  general  dock  laborers;  mjll  men;  lumber  in- 
spectors and  sealers;  and  lumber  pilers  and  yard  men.39 

Except  for  occasional  aid  given  to  vessel  owners  or  dock  man- 
agers in  furnishing  strike  breakers  when  the  other  union  was  on 
strike,  these  two  organizations  maintained  an  indifferent  attitude 
toward  each  other  during  the  decade  following  1892.  The  sea- 
men raised  no  objection  to  the  expanding  policy  of  the  longshore- 
men until  the  marine  firemen,  oilers,  and  water  tenders  were  ab- 
sorbed in  1899.  As  already  noted  the  seamen  had  themselves  re- 
fused admittance  to  the  firemen  on  several  occasions.  But  when 
the  International  Longshoremen's  Association  accepted  the  fire- 
men, the  seamen  appealed  to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 

ss  Journal  of  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  in  ms.  passim. 
**Procedings  International   Longshoremen's  Association,   1901,   pp.    48 
et  seq. 


197]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  47 

for  jurisdiction  over  this  class  of  labor  on  the  Lakes.40  This 
started  a  jurisdictional  fight  which  weakened  both  organizations 
in  their  dealings  with  their  employers. 

The  proposal  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  1901  to  form 
a  federation  of  all  employees  on  the  boats,  to  be  managed  and 
controlled  by  the  vessel  owners,  aroused  the  unions  to  a  renewed 
effort  to  band  together  for  mutual  protection.  The  marine  coun- 
cil idea  was  revived.  The  Milwaukee  unions  took  the  lead  and 
organized  a  council  composed  of  representatives  of  the  following 
unions:  International  Longshoremen's  Association;  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association;  American  Association  of  Mas- 
ters and  Pilots;  Licensed  Tugmen's  Protective  Association;  Ma- 
rine Firemen,  Oilers,  and  Water  Tenders'  Union;  and  Lake  Sea- 
men's Union.41 

These  councils  existed  throughout  1902  but  never  became  a 
factor  in  the  labor  movements  on  the  Lakes  for  the  following 
reasons :  First,  as  before,  the  councils  were  given  no  powers  but 
were  merely  advisory  bodies.  And  second,  the  aristocracy  of 
labor  prevented  a  close  cooperation  of  unions.  The  captains 
considered  themselves  to  be  on  a  higher  plane  than  the  engineers 
and  refused  to  join  in  a  movement  demanding  an  equality  of 
interests.42  The  engineers  in  turn  considered  the  masters  to  be 
ignorant  sailors  with  sufficient  experience  and  years  of  service 
to  gain  for  them  a  position  to  command  other  sailors.  Both 
captains  and  engineers  looked  with  disdain  upon  all  other  classes 
of  labor  on  the  Lakes.  The  seamen  continued  to  hold  themselves 
aloof  from  the  firemen  and  longshoremen  since  their  work  re- 
quired a  higher  degree  of  skill  and  intelligence  and  hence  at- 
tracted the  most  desirable  of  the  unlicensed  men. 

Finally,  the  unions  were  individually  too  strong  to  make  ef- 
fective cooperation  necessary.  With  the  exception  of  the  cap- 
tains, no  class  of  labor  on  the  boats  had  failed  to  secure  its  de- 
mands from  the  vessel  owners  since  the  beginning  of  the  boom 
period  on  the  Lakes  in  1899.  The  failure  of  the  captains  was  due 
to  their  own  inability  to  work  together  rather  than  to  a  lack  of 
outside  assistance.  In  the  face  of  these  successes,  the  fear  of  a  re- 

<o Proceedings  International  Seamen's  Union,  1902,  p.  9. 

41  Marine  Record,  Nov.  11,  1901,  p.  11. 

42  Marine  Review,  Feb.  8,  1906,  p.  34. 


48  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [198 

vival  of  the  federation  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  was  not 
sufficiently  marked  to  force  the  unions  to  make  concessions  to  each 
other.  Above  all,  the  other  unions  were  unwilling  to  make  con- 
cessions to  the  longshoremen  which  would  in  any  sense  recognize 
the  equality  of  the  latter.  While  the  longshoremen,  being  at 
the  bottom  of  the  list,  did  not  hesitate  to  admit  to  its  membership 
any  class  of  labor ;  but  being  one  of  the  strongest  unions  on  the 
Lakes,  it  refused  to  relinquish  any  of  its  power  to  a  weaker  or- 
ganization. Hence  the  movement,  begun  for  cooperation,  soon 
developed  antagonism  instead. 

The  men  who  were  responsible  for  the  policies  of  the  Interna- 
tional Longshoremen's  Association  were  industrial  unionists  in 
the  extreme  sense.43  In  1901  they  started  to  organize  the  marine 
engineers  and  hoped  to  absorb  the  lake  membership  of  the  Marine 
Engineers'  Benevolent  Association.  Some  of  the  lake  members 
of  the  latter  organization  were  favorable  to  such  a  plan  and  one 
local  was  actually  organized  but  the  general  association  defeated 
the  scheme  at  its  annual  convention  in  1902.  Both  the  Inter- 
national Longshoremen's  Association  and  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union  tried  to  break  up  the  organiation  of  cooks  in  the  Hotel 
and  Restaurant  Employees'  International  Association  and  in 
the  Bartenders'  International  League  and  to  induce  them  to  join 
their  own  organizations  instead.  Attempts  were  made  by  the 
Longshoremen's  Association  in  1901  to  induce  the  captains, 
mates,  and  seamen  to  affiliate  with  them  but  they  were  unsuc- 
cessful.44 

In  1902  more  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  make  the  Inter- 
national Longshoremen's  Association  a  more  inclusive  organiza- 
tion and  in  the  convention  of  that  year  a  suitable  name  to  de- 
scribe the  type  of  organization  desired  by  the  leaders  was  dis- 
cussed. Among  the  names  proposed  were  the  International 
Marine  and  Railway  Freightmen's  Association  and  the  Interna- 
tional Association  of  Marine  and  Transport  "Workers.  The  name 
finally  adopted  was  International  Longshoremen,  Marine  and 
Transport  Workers  Association.45  The  adoption  of  this  name 

4?  Each  annual  report  of  the  officers  urged  the  extension  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  union  to  cover  all  employees  engaged  in  the  transportation  in- 
dustries. 

** Proceedings  International  Longshoremen's  Association,  1901,  p.  49. 

«  Ibid.,  1902,  p.  160. 


199]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  49 

was  considered  a  declaration  of.  war  by  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union  46  —  a  war  which  lasted  for  six  years  and  which  was  a 
continual  source  of  weakness  to  both  unions  in  dealing  with  em- 
ployers. The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  utilized  this  union  war 
in  playing  one  antagonist  against  the  other  whenever  occasion 
required  it. 

The  attempts  of  the  independent  vessel  owners  to  maintain  ore 
freights  in  1901  had  failed;  instead  a  new  competitor,  owning 
one- third  of  the  tonnage  in  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and 
carrying  more  than  one-third  of  the  ore,  and  at  the  same  time 
shipping  more  ore  than  all  other  shippers  on  the  Lakes,  had 
come  to  dominate  freight  rates.  An  attempt  to  form  a  labor 
federation  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  the  unions  had  likewise 
failed  because  the  vessel  owners  could  not  work  in  harmony. 
While  in  the  wake  of  this  failure  every  branch  of  labor  on  the 
boats,  except  the  captains,  had  forced  increases  in  wages  from 
the  vessel  owners.  By  the  end  of  1902  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation was  besieged  from  without  by  the  growing  power  of 
unionism  and  from  within  by  the  fear  of  "trust"  dictation  and 
by  the  underhand  methods  of  a  floating  membership  which 
worked  in  harmony  with  the  majority  only  when  personal  gains 
could  be  increased  by  adherence  to  the  rules  of  the  association. 

In  an  attempt  to  fortify  themselves  against  the  unions,  the 
Steel  Corporation,  and  the  floating  membership  in  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association,  a  number  of  the  vessel  owners  planned  a 
complete  reorganization  of  the  association  at  the  end  of  the 
season  of  1902,  involving  a  definite  change  in  its  policy  in  deal- 

46  The  American  Federation  of  Labor  was  appealed  to  for  a  settlement 
of  the  differences  between  the  two  organizations  as  early  as  1902.  Pro- 
ceedings International  Seamen's  Union,  1902,  p.  9.  The  A.  F.  of  L.  re- 
ferred the  matter  back  to  the  two  unions  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  them 
to  reach  a  satisfactory  agreement  without  outside  interference.  Four  years 
later,  the  feeling  had  become  more  bitter  than  ever  and  the  A.  F.  of  L. 
finally  held  a  hearing  on  the  controversy  in  April,  1906.  The  decision  was 
not  rendered  until  June,  1907.  It  was  so  favorable  to  the  seamen  that  the 
longshoremen  rejected  it  at  their  next  convention.  In  the  award  was  an 
order  for  the  seamen  and  the  longshoremen  to  establish  some  form  of  fed- 
eration. Ibid.,  1907,  passim.  But  before  anything  could  have  been  ac- 
complished in  this  direction,  even  if  the  two  organizations  had  been  favor- 
able to  such  a  plan,  both  unions  were  involved  in  difficulties  with  their 
employers. 


50  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [200 

ing  with  labor.47  The  first  plan  of  reorganization  which  was  dis- 
cussed excluded  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  from  mem- 
bership.48 This  seemed  to  be  satisfactory  to  the  management  of 
this  company  since  it  opposed  any  reorganization  of  the  associa- 
tion. A  reconsideration  of  the  proposed  plans  gave  the  company 
an  opportunity  to  join  but  found  the  manager  in  a  non-receptive 
mood.49  Only  after  numerous  conferences,  involving  certain 
changes  in  the  plan  of  reorganization,  was  the  committee  able  to 
induce  him  to  enroll  his  fleet  in  the  association. 

The  reorganization  was  completed  in  January,  1903,  and  the 
association  was  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  West  Virginia. 
The  objects  of  the  association,  as  stated  in  the  articles  of  in- 
corporation, were  as  follows: 

To  establish  and  maintain  shipping  offices  for  the  convenient  securing  of 
seamen  for  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes,  their  connecting  and  tributary 
waters;  to  establish  and  maintain  and  procure  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  aids  to  navigation;  and  improve  and  secure  the  improvement  of 
channels,  docks,  wharves,  loading  and  unloading  and  terminal  facilities; 
to  establish  and  maintain,  by  contract  or  otherwise,  such  amicable  relations 
between  employers  and  employed  as  would  avoid  the  public  injury  that 
would  result  from  lockouts  or  strikes  in  the  lake  carrying  service;  to  pro- 
vide, so  far  as  may  be,  for  the  prompt  and  amicable  adjustment  of  matters 
affecting  shipping  and  the  interests  of  vessel  owners  on  the  Great  Lakes 
and  their  connecting  and  tributary  waters,  and  to  lease,  rent,  purchase  or 
sell  such  real  or  personal  property  as  may  be  necessary  or  convenient  in 
carrying  out  the  foregoing  purposes.50 

The  capital  stock  of  the  association  was  apportioned  according 
to  the  enrolled  tonnage  of  each  fleet,  one  share  being  allotted  for 
each  100  net  tons.51  Management  of  the  affairs  of  the  associa- 
tion was  vested  in  a  board  of  directors  of  twenty-one  members.52 
This  opened  the  way  for  control  by  the  large  fleets. 
Previous  to  this  time  the  labor  policy  of  the  vessel  owners, 

47  Marine  Eeview,  Dec.  18,  1902,  p.  22. 

*»Ibid.,  Jan.  3,  1903,  p.  25. 

*9 /bid.,  Jan.  29,  1903,  p.  23;  Feb.  5,  1903,  p.  22. 

BO  Articles  of  Association  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1903,  art. 
iii 

si  Ibid.,  1903,  art.  vii. 

62  By-laws  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1903,  art.  vi.  Control 
was  further  concentrated  by  forming  within  the  board  of  directors  an  ex- 
ecutive committee  of  five  members  authorized  to  exercise  all  the  powers  and 
functions  of  the  board  when  the  board  was  not  in  session.  Ibid.,  art.  vii. 


201]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  51 

first  in  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owriers'  Association  and  later  in 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  had  been  one  of  open  non-union 
shop  when  unions  were  weak  and  closed  non-union  shop  —  closed 
against  the  unions  —  when  unions  were  strong.  As  already  re- 
lated, this  had  resulted  in  occasional  open  conflicts,  from  which 
the  owners  usually  returned  victorious,  followed  by  continuous 
guerrilla  warfare  involving  endless  trouble  for  the  owners  and 
considerable  losses  to  the  unions.  During  the  four  prosperous 
years  preceding  the  reorganization  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation, the  demand  for  men  had  been  great  and  the  owners 
could  not  risk  tie-ups  of  their  boats  by  refusing  the  demands  of 
the  unions.  Because  there  had  been  these  four  years  of  high 
freights  on  a  very  rapidly  increasing  tonnage,  following  two 
lean  years,  the  owners  gave  less  attention  than  usual  to  the 
unions  and  permitted  the  latter  to  gain  a  position  which  seemed 
to  insure  continuous  control  of  wages. 

Lake  traffic  had  always  been  a  chance  investment.  There 
never  was  any  certainty  that  freights  would  pay  the  running  ex- 
penses of  the  boats.  On  the  other  hand,  seasons  which  returned 
in  profits  half  or  even  full  value  of  the  boats  had  not  been  un- 
known. This  was  especially  true  of  small  boats  whose  safety 
was  endangered  even  in  the  ordinary  storms  on  the  Lakes.  Then 
too,  the  element  of  chance  in  freight  changes  was  so  great  that 
in  the  early  days  season  charters  were  the  exception  rather  than 
the  rule.  In  an  anticipated  dull  season  the  shipper  refused  to 
grant  charters,  preferring  to  rely  upon  the  competition  for  car- 
goes to  reduce  freight  rates;  and  in  a  boom  season,  the  carriers 
took  advantage  of  the  competition  for  boats  to  reap  the  profits 
from  increasing  rates.  The  range  and  frequency  of  these  rate 
fluctuations  is  shown  in  the  following  table  :53 

RULING  FREIGHT  RATES  ON  ORE  PROM  ESCANABA  TO  LAKE  ERIE  PORTS 

Date                                          Bate  Date                                           Bate 

May  1 $0.60       August  2 1.00 

May  29 0.55       August  4 1.10 

June  24 0.65       August  6 1.00 

July  6 0.75       August  12 0.90 

July  21 0.80       September  10 1.00 

July  30 0.85       September  23 1.05 

ss  Marine  Review,  Dec.  17,  1891,  p.  3. 


52  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [202 

September  26 1.00  October   30.. 0.85 

October  3 0 . 90  November  1 0 . 90 

October  5 $0.85  Novembers 1.00 

October  8 0.75  November  6 1.20 

October   10 0.65  November  10 1.25 

October  12 0 . 75  November  12 1.30 

October  23 0.85  November  19 1.25 

October  26 0.80  November  22 1.30 

Likewise,  wages  were  never  settled  and  often  fluctuated  300 
per  cent  or  more  within  a  season.  Previous  to  the  late  nineties, 
the  system  of  employing  men  by  the  trip  instead  of  by  the  month 
was  universal.  This  usually  involved  idle  days  in  port  since  the 
men  were  discharged  as  soon  as  port  was  reached  and  were  not 
hired  again  until  the  boat  was  ready  to  start.  Since  the  man- 
agement of  the  men  while  on  the  boats  had  not  been  such  as  to 
encourage  the  men  to  return  to  that  boat  for  the  succeeding  trip, 
it  became  the  custom  for  all  below  the  rank  of  licensed  officers 
to  be  floaters.  Furthermore,  the  men  employed  on  the  boats 
were  usually  single  men  and  had  no  ties  to  bind  them  to  a  job. 
This  combination  of  the  chance  element  of  high  wages  or  no 
wages;  of  work  days  of  long  hours,  fatiguing  work,  poor  food, 
unsanitary  living  conditions,  and  ill  treatment  by  the  officers  of 
the  boat,  followed  by  idle  days  in  port  spent  in  drunkenness 
and  carousals;  and  the  lack  of  ties  which  make  men  look  to  the 
future  and  try  to  provide  for  it,  served  to  attract  to  the  Lakes 
an  irresponsible  set  of  men  and  to  make  them  more  unsteady  and 
irresponsible  the  longer  they  remained  on  the  boats.  As  oppor- 
tunity offered,  these  men  not  only  shifted  from  boat  to  boat  but 
from  the  lake  trades  to  other  work  of  similar  grade.  In  the 
summer  it  was  next  to  impossible  to  hold  the  men  on  the  boats 
when  the  upper  lake  ports  were  reached  for  the  high  wages  of 
the  harvest  fields  offered  too  strong  an  appeal.  After  a  few 
weeks  some  of  them  drifted  back  to  the  Lakes  only  to  answer  the 
call  of  high  wages  again  when  a  chance  came  to  work  in  the 
logging  camps.54  Even  without  the  promise  of  higher  wages  or 
a  change  of  work,  many  of  these  men  could  not  be  held  at  work 
they  were  expected  to  perform  and  they  became  instead  habitual 
deserters.  Especially  among  deckhands  and  firemen,  the  de- 
serter was  the  rule  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  while  the  man 

s*  Marine  Eecord,  passim. 


203]  TRADE   ABGEEMENTS  53 

who  remained  on  the  boats  throughout  the  sailing  season  was  the 
exception. 

The  size  of  the  ore  carrying  boats  increased  50  per  cent  from 
1898  to  1902.  This  fact,  coupled  with  increased  knowledge  of 
lake  water  courses,  better  facilities  for  transportation  through 
locks  and  connecting  rivers,  and  greater  efficiency  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  boats,  had  increased  the  safety  of  navigation. 
These  factors  tended  to  decrease  the  risks  of  the  vessel  owner 
and  to  make  his  gross  income  for  the  season  more  definite  and 
more  secure.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Steel  Corporation  had 
appeared  as  the  shipper  of  a  large  share  of  the  ore  and  as  a  boat 
owner  with  a  very  great  influence  upon  freight  rates.  Further- 
more, competition  was  increasing:  26  boats  with  a  tonnage  of 
114,284  tons  were  constructed  in  1900;  34,  of  116,671  tons  in 
1901 ;  and  35,  of  142,195  tons  in  1902.55  This  continued  increase 
in  the  available  lake  tonnage  gave  the  independent  boat  owners 
a  greater  incentive  for  making  sure  of  business  throughout  the 
season  by  securing  season  charters. 

A  large  element  in  the  boat  owners'  expenditure  was  wages. 
Up  to  this  time  little  had  been  done  to  make  season  wages  certain, 
although  they  had  already  been  made  more  steady  during  the 
past  few  years  than  formerly.  Only  a  contract  for  the  season 
could  remove  this  uncertainty.  It  was  out  of  these  conditions 
that  the  trade  agreement  on  the  boats  evolved.  And  it  was  with 
this  purpose  in  mind  rather  than  to  continue  the  fight  against 
the  unions  that  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  prepared  for  re- 
organization at  the  close  of  the  season  of  1902.56 

The  vessel  owners  had  never  in  the  past  conceded  the  right  of 
an  employee  to  have  a  voice  in  fixing  his  wages  or  the  conditions 
under  which  he  worked.  It  had  been  customary  for  both  unions 
and  owners  to  frame  a  scale  of  wages.  Might  decided  which 
scale  should  rule.  In  signing  contracts  with  the  unions  at  this 
time  the  policy  of  the  owners  did  not  change.  Since  1899  might 
had  been  partly  at  least  with  the  unions.  Signing  the  contract 
meant  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  merely  that  the  vessel 
owners  were  trying  to  define  the  terms  which  they  expected  the 

ss  Marine  Review,  Feb.,  1910,  pp.  64-65. 

68  The  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  at  first  opposed  the  reorganiza- 
tion because  it  did  not  wish  to  give  up  to  the  association  the  right  to  deal 
directly  with  the  laborers  on  its  boats.  Ibid.,  Jan.  22,  1903,  p.  18. 


54  WAGE   BABGAINING   ON   LAKES  [204 

might  of  the  unions  would  exact  of  them  with  or  without  such 
an  agreement.  At  the  same  time  the  owners  were  trying  to 
place  responsibility  for  the  faithful  observance  of  the  terms 
agreed  upon. 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Beneficial  Federation  was  planned  in  1901 
to  standardize  conditions  on  the  boats  and  to  secure  greater  re- 
sponsibility on  the  part  of  the  employees  upon  terms  satisfactory 
to  the  vessel  owners.  The  weakness  of  the  association  and  the 
strength  of  the  unions  prevented  the  fruition  of  this  plan.  The 
trade  agreements  of  1903  with  the  unions  representing  the  em- 
ployees below  the  licensed  officers  were  granted  by  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  to  standardize  conditions  on  the  boats  and  to 
secure  greater  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  employees  upon 
terms  acceptable  to  the  unions. 

The  idea  of  a  trade  agreement  was  not  new  on  the  Lakes.  As 
early  as  1889  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  had  asked  the  ore  car- 
riers represented  in  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association 
for  a  conference  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  an  agreement.57 
To  be  sure  the  union  was  weak  at  this  time  and  reversed  its  posi- 
tion two  years  later.  But  beginning  in  1899  representatives  of 
the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  and  of  the  firemen's  union  attended 
the  annual  conventions  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and 
asked  for  agreements.58  Since  1899  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation and  the  dock  managers  had  had  agreements  with  their 
employees  and  even  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  had  a  con- 
tract with  the  grain  scoopers  at  Buffalo.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
methods  employed  by  the  association  in  dealing  with  the  men 
on  the  boats  in  1901  and  1902  practically  amounted  to  an 
agreement. 

As  soon  as  the  association  was  reorganized  and  it  became 
known  that  it  expected  to  deal  with  the  unions,  the  latter  planned 
for  conferences  and  drew  up  terms  to  be  submitted.  The 
American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  submitted  a  classi- 
fied wage  scale  for  masters  and  mates.59  Without  "recognizing" 
this  organization,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  reached  an  un- 
derstanding with  its  representatives  concerning  wages  for  the 
season,  granting  a  monthly  scale  to  mates  which  was  about  20 

57  Cf.  supra,  p.  17. 

58  From  ms.  records  of  these  unions. 

5»  Marine  Review,  Jan.  22,  1903,  p.  20. 


205]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  55 

per  cent  higher  than  the  wages  paid  in  1902. 60  The  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association  was  not  ''recognized"  either,  but 
its  wage  scale  was  accepted  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.61 
Before  the  other  unions  met  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  an 
attempt  was  made  to  have  a  joint  conference  in  order  to  strength- 
en their  positions  in  effecting  an  agreement.  The  growing  ani- 
mosity between  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  and  the  International 
Longshoremen's  Association  prevented  such  a  conference  so  that 
each  union  worked  alone  instead. 

Previous  to  the  conference  with  the  owners,  each  union  met 
and  framed  a  set  of  demands  which  exceeded  their  expectations 
and  which  they  could  reduce  in  conference  without  sacrificing 
what  they  thought  was  justly  due.  The  agreements  made  by  the 
delegates  of  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  were  never  effective  until 
ratified  by  a  referendum  vote  of  the  union.  This  proved  to  be 
a  formal  proceeding  only  since  no  agreement  which  was  recom- 
mended by  the  delegates  was  ever  rejected  by  the  union.62  In 
spite  of  continued  protests  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association, 
this  referendum  was  used  year  after  year  for  it  gave  the  union 
a  decided  advantage.  In  case  satisfactory  terms  could  not  be 
secured  from  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  the  proposed  con- 
tract could  be  submitted  to  referendum  vote  of  the  union  without 
recommendation  or  even  with  secret  recommendation  to  reject  it. 
In  this  manner  responsibility  could  be  shifted  from  delegates  to 
union,  a  decided  vote  against  acceptance  of  the  contract  would 
show  the  strength  of  union  sentiment,  and  the  union  would  have 

so  The  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  objected  to  a  monthly  scale,  desir- 
ing to  make  a  season  contract  with  its  mates  instead.  One  of  the  conces- 
sions made  to  this  fleet  at  the  time  of  the  reorganization  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  was  the  insertion  in  the  by-laws  of  the  following  sec- 
tion :  "In  order  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  service  by  systems  of 
bonuses  and  profit  sharing,  the  right  and  privilege  shall  always  remain 
with  each  individual  stockholder  of  this  Association  to  make  contracts  with 
employees  running  for  a  year  or  more  on  such  terms  and  conditions  as  may 
be  desired."  By-laws  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1903,  art.  i,  sec. 
1.  This  clause  was  used  a  great  deal  by  this  fleet.  At  this  time  the  op- 
position of  the  captains'  union  prevented  the  manager  of  the  fleet  from 
making  yearly  contracts.  Marine  Eeview,  Mar.  26,  1903,  p.  22. 

«!  The  engineers  tried  to  obtain  recognition  and  a  closed  shop  agree- 
ment but  failed.  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association, 
1903,  p.  513. 

62  Ms.  records  of  union  conferences,  passim. 


56  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [206 

time  to  prepare  for  a  strike  while  a  second  conference  was  being 
arranged. 

All  other  unions  gave  their  delegates  power  to  sign  binding 
agreements  without  reference  back  to  the  unions.  The  executive 
committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  always  had  power 
to  sign  agreements  binding  upon  all  members  of  the  association. 
The  executive  committee  was  always  represented  by  the  president 
of  the  association  and  Mr.  Coubly.63  Sometimes  other  members 
attended.  In  any  case  the  president  usually  made  formal  state- 
ments while  Mr.  Coulby  gave  decisions  on  moot  points.64  To  all 
intents  and  purposes  Mr.  Coulby  represented  the  vessel  owners 
in  wage  conferences. 

In  opening  a  conference  the  demands  of  the  unions  were  al- 
ways presented  formally,  accompanied  by  a  statement  of  griev- 
ances showing  why  hours  should  be  reduced,  wages  increased, 
the  number  of  men  on  the  boats  increased,  etc.  The  president  of 
the  association  usually  made  a  formal  reply  stating  that  the 
exigencies  of  lake  traffic  and  the  uncertainties  of  the  current 
year  would  prevent  any  increases  in  men  or  wages  or  reductions 
in  hours,  or  perhaps  he  would  instead  present  a  counter-demand 
for  a  reduction  in  wages.  The  clauses  of  the  proposed  contract 
were  then  taken  up  seriatim  and  those  which  were  agreed  upon 
were  voted  accepted  on  first  reading.  All  others  were  passed 
for  the  time  being.  After  going  through  the  entire  contract  in 
this  manner  the  union  usually  withdrew  to  consider  modifications 
in  the  rejected  clauses  while  the  executive  committee  of  the  asso- 
ciation considered  substitutes  for  such  clauses.  Upon  re-con- 
vening, the  conference  again  took  up  such  clauses  seriatim  and 
worked  upon  all  except  wages  until  some  sort  of  a  compromise 
was  reached.  Usually  the  unions  were  forced  to  withdraw  some 
demands  and  reduce  others.  Occasionally  they  thought  they 
were  receiving  a  grant  of  some  demand  when  a  later  interpreta- 
tion showed  that  it  meant  something  different  from  what  the 
union  had  expected  it  to  mean. 

Wages  were  always  left  to  the  last.  Because  of  the  direct  re- 
lationship between  the  wages  of  one  class  of  unlicensed  men  and 
those  of  other  classes,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  usually 

fts  Cf.  infra,  p.  60. 

6*  Ms.  minutes  of  wage  conferences,  passim. 


207]  TRADE   ARGEEMENTS  57 

wished  to  settle  with  the  weakest  union  first.  The  wages  of  the 
cooks  and  seamen  were  usually  settled  at  one  conference  and  the 
firemen  at  another.  In  1907  only  were  they  all  settled  at  once. 
A  contract  with  any  union  affiliated  with  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union  was  never  accepted  by  the  delegates  until  agreement  had 
been  reached  with  the  other  affiliated  unions.65 

The  Lake  Seamen's  Union  was  given  a  closed  union  shop  agree- 
ment in  1903  which  classified  the  boats  in  the  association,  stating 
the  number  and  grades  of  men  to  be  employed  upon  each  and  the 
wages  to  be  paid  each  class  of  men.66  Spring  wages  remained 
the  same  as  in  the  fall  of  1902  but  fall  wages  were  increased  ap- 
proximately 20  per  cent.  Although  but  few  of  the  deckhands 
had  joined  the  seamen's  union  at  this  time,  their  wages  were  fixed 
in  the  seamen's  agreement.  Deserters  were  to  be  punished  by 
being  denied  re-employment  for  a  period  of  thirty  days.  Police 
protection  for  the  boats  was  abolished  but  the  union  agreed  not 
to  strike  for  any  cause  whatsoever.  In  case  of  disagreement  the 
men  were  to  continue  at  work  until  the  grievance  could  be  arbi- 
trated. The  question  which  was  hardest  to  settle  and  which 
caused  vessel  owners  most  trouble  was  the  hours  of  labor.67  Pre- 
vious to  this  time  the  seamen  were  accustomed  to  be  on  duty  18  to 
36  hours  at  a  time  while  in  port  loading  ore  or  shifting  the 
boat.68  For  this  extra  work  the  members  of  the  union  received 
no  extra  pay. 

Failing  in  their  demands  for  a  general  observance  of  "watch 
and  watch"  the  able  seamen  accepted  instead  a  provision  for 
overtime  pay  and  a  provision  that  no  unnecessary  work  be  re- 
quired on  Sundays  or  legal  holidays.  The  regular  day  in  port 
was  fixed  at  10  hours  (between  7  A.  M.  and  6  P.  M.)  unless  the 

85  Ms.  minutes  of  wage  conferences,  passim. 

88  These  agreements  were  always  printed  so  that  facts  given  here  are 
taken  from  the  agreements  themselves. 

87  This  was  true  at  every  conference  with  this  union.  Unquestionably 
unduly  long  hours  had  been  the  rule  at  times  but  when  the  union  obtained 
an  agreement  fixing  the  hours  of  labor  on  the  boats  its  members  demanded 
a  rigid  adherence  to  the  agreement  at  all  times,  regardless  of  the  reasons 
for  the  captains'  desire  to  use  their  discretion.  This  rigid  adherence  to  the 
rule-book  caused  both  owners  and  captains  much  trouble  throughout  the 
life  of  the  agreement  system. 

68  Marine  Review,  Mar.  13,  1902,  p.  15.  The  average  time  for  such  work 
was  about  26  hours. 


58  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [208 

men  were  given  watch  and  watch.  From  the  beginning  this 
section  gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble  since  it  was  a  direct  depart- 
ure from  age-long  custom  on  the  boats.  Furthermore,  it  was 
not  fully  understood  by  masters  and  men  and  caused  trouble  be- 
cause of  diverse  interpretations.  As  soon  as  the  agreement  was 
given  a  trial  and  the  source  of  the  trouble  was  found,  a  second 
conference  was  held  and  "overtime"  was  more  fully  denned  so 
as  to  be  clearly  intelligible  to  all  concerned. 

The  Marine  Firemen,  Oilers  and  Water  Tenders'  Union,  rep- 
resented by  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association,  was 
given  a  closed  union  shop  agreement  which  denned  the  number 
of  men  to  be  employed  on  the  boats  and  the  wages  to  be  paid. 
The  spring  scale  gave  an  advance  of  $2.50  per  month  over  the 
fall  scale  of  1902  and  the  fall  scale  of  1903  carried  an  advance 
of  about  20  per  cent.  Deserters  were  to  be  punished  by  a  re- 
fusal of  re-employment  for  a  period  of  30  days.  Strikes  were 
prohibited  and  differences  were  to  be  settled  by  arbitration,  the 
men  to  remain  at  work  in  the  meantime. 

The  Marine  Cooks  and  Stewards'  Union  was  given  a  closed 
union  shop  agreement  which  defined  the  number  of  men  to  be 
employed  upon  each  class  of  boats  and  the  wages  to  be  paid  each. 
Some  adjustments  were  made  in  this  classification  to  approach 
more  closely  a  fixed  standard  of  wages,  but  in  general  the  scale 
adopted  provided  for  an  advance  of  15  to  20  per  cent  over  the 
scale  for  1902.  The  cooks  had  not  been  included  in  the  advance 
to  seamen  and  firemen  in  1902.  Provisions  to  cover  desertions 
from  the  boats  and  the  settlement  of  strikes  were  the  same  as  in 
the  seamen's  and  firemen's  agreements. 

Trouble  started  as  soon  as  the  season  opened.  When  the  mates 
refused  to  sign  the  season  contracts  offered  by  the  Pittsburg 
Steamship  Company  the  company  withdrew  the  proposal  but 
later  punished  some  of  the  mates  who  had  led  the  opposition.  In 
September  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  de- 
clared a  strike  against  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  because 
its  manager  carried  non-union  mates,  although  this  organization 
had  not  been  given  a  closed  shop  agreement.69  The  manager  or- 
dered the  boats  to  lay  up  as  soon  as  they  reached  port.  He  kept 
his  barges  in  commission,  having  them  towed  by  independent 

6»  Marine  Review,  Sept.  17,  1903,  p.  22. 


209]  TRADE   ABGEEMENTS  59 

boats.  The  union  requested  the  independents  not  to  do  this  but 
upon  threat  of  loss  of  Steel  Corporation  business  they  were 
forced  to  continue  the  practice.  The  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
at  first  supported  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  but  in  try- 
ing to  settle  the  strike  a  temporary  break  occurred  in  the  asso- 
ciation. Thus  relieved  of  the  support  of  the  association,  the 
manager  removed  the  non-unionists  and  settled  the  strike.70 

By  October,  1903,  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and 
Pilots  had  practically  a  100  per  cent  organization  on  the  Lakes.71 
Finding  themselves  being  deprived  of  more  and  more  of  their 
accustomed  prerogatives  by  their  employers  on  the  one  hand, 
and,  on  the  other,  having  their  authority  questioned  by  the  men 
under  them  who  very  early  looked  to  their  agreements  rather 
than  to  the  captain  as  the  source  of  authority  on  the  boats,  the 
masters  had  been  gradually  forced  to  band  together  for  self  pro- 
tection.72 By  the  close  of  1903  they  began  to  make  demands  up- 
on the  vessel  owners  for  the  right  to  hire  all  men  on  the  boats, 
chief  engineers  included.73  The  owners  anticipated  trouble  for 
the  opening  of  the  season  of  1904. 

In  December,  1903,  A.  B.  Wolvin  retired  from  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  and  Harry  Coulby 

TO  Marine  Review,  Oct.  1,  1903,  p.  17. 

71  Probably  included  all  but  one  captain  and  one  mate.     Ibid.,  p.  18. 

72  These   changes  were   especially   marked   in   the   Pittsburg   Steamship 
Company's  fleet.     Writing  editorially  concerning  these  changes  the  editor 
of  the  Marine  Review  said  on  October  1,  1903  (pp.  17-18) :     "The  opera- 
tion of  a  fleet  so  large  as  this  involved  certain  radical  changes  in  system. 
Instead   of  being   owned  by   individuals   whose   temperament   and   habits, 
whose  strength  and  frailties,  were  intimately  known  to  those  who  sailed  the 
vessels,  they  became  owned  by  an  indeterminate  number  of  persons,  scat- 
tered from  Maine  to  Mexico,  and  known  under  the  general  classification 
of  stockholders  in  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation.     In  other  words 
the  evolution  was  from  the  personal  to  the  impersonal;    and   impersonal 
things  must  be  managed  in  an  impersonal  manner.     The  human  element  is 
lacking.     .     .     There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Steel  Corporation  trod 
on  the  toes  of  a  great  many  captains  when  it  extended  its  system  of  opera- 
tion to  the  vessels.     While  there  has  been  a  tendency  of  late  on  the  part  of  a 
number  of  owners  to  limit  the  authority  of  the  master,  the  Steel  Corpora- 
tion took  a  long  step  in  that  direction  and  left  him  practically  shorn.  And 
it  must  be  admitted  that  members  of  other  unions  on  board  ship  did  not 
temper  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb." 

73  Ibid.,  Aug.  20,  1903,  p.  24. 


60  WAGE  BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [210 

succeeded  him.74  Mr.  Coulby  had  been  manager  of  the  Picands 
and  Mather  fleet  and  of  the  Great  Lakes  Towing  Company, 
familiarly  known  as  the  Tug  Trust.  He  was  already  an  in- 
fluential member  of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association.  As  president  and  manager  of  the  Pittsburg  Steam- 
ship Company  Mr.  Coulby  has  dominated  the  labor  policy  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  since  December,  1903.  The  source 
of  his  power  is  three- fold :  First,  his  position  as  executive  head 
of  the  largest  fleet  on  the  Lakes ;  second,  his  relation  to  the  Steel 
Corporation,  which  in  addition  to  owning  this  fleet,  ships  more 
ore  down  the  Lakes  than  do  all  other  shippers  together;  and 
third,  his  personal  qualities  which  alone  make  him  a  leader  whose 
counsel  would  be  sought  by  other  men  in  his  business. 


74  Marine  Eeview,  Dec.  24,  1903,  p.  23. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DISRUPTION  OF  THE  UNIONS 

In  general  the  agreements  of  1903  were  a  marked  improve- 
ment over  previous  methods  of  dealing  with  labor  on  the  boats. 
The  friction  which  accompanied  the  introduction  of  the  contract 
plan  gradually  disappeared  as  the  parties  came  to  understand 
each  other  better.  In  the  cases  of  some  obstreperous  individuals, 
however,  notably  among  the  firemen,  the  agreement  served  only 
to  make  them  more  irresponsible  and  more  difficult  to  control. 
They  often  refused  to  do  what  the  "red  book"  did  not  speci- 
fically require  of  them  and  even  then  their  interpretation  of  its 
requirements  was  not  always  correct.  Such  cases  were  perhaps 
exaggerated  in  number  and  importance  when  related  by  those 
who  were  aggrieved.  Nevertheless  the  inability  of  the  union  of- 
ficials to  exercise  complete  control  over  their  members  from  the 
start  caused  some  of  the  vessel  owners  to  hesitate  about  renewing 
agreements  for  1904.  The  internal  difficulties  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  had  largely  been  eliminated  by  the  close  of  the 
season  of  1903,  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  some  misunderstand- 
ings had  been  removed  and  partly  to  the  degree  of  control  exer- 
cised by  the  executive  committee  of  the  association,  by  which  it 
could  easily  over-ride  objections  to  the  association  policy  by  in- 
dividual members. 

In  his  annual  report  for  1903  the  president  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  said:  "We  have  had  the  experience  of  one 
season.  The  conditions  before  us  are  essentially  different  from 
what  they  were  last  spring. ' ' a  The  association  took  no  action 
either  in  favor  of  or  against  agreements  but  left  the  matter  of 
renewals  in  the  hands  of  the  executive  committee.  There  were 
always  members  of  the  association  who  were  opposed  to  any 
' '  recognition ' '  of  the  unions  and  who  were  ready  at  any  time  to 
throw  down  the  gauntlet  and  resort  to  the  former  methods  of  ex- 

1  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1903,  p.  8. 

61 


62  WAGE  BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [212 

terminating  warfare.  A  number  of  the  owners  discussed  seces- 
sion from  the  policy  of  the  association  in  dealing  with  labor  and 
the  establishment  of  a  policy  of  "open  shop"  instead.2  In  the 
face  of  the  growing  solidarity  of  the  owners  at  this  time  this 
minority  might  have  gained  a  larger  following  but  for  the  fact 
that  they  could  not  rely  upon  the  support  of  the  captains  and 
without  this  support  they  could  not  hope  to  keep  the  union  men 
off  the  boats. 

The  activities  of  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and 
Pilots  in  1903  led  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  expect 
trouble  from  this  source  in  1904.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1904  the  Steel  Corporation  had  enough  ore  in  its  furnace  yards 
and  on  the  Lake  Erie  docks  to  last  it  until  August  even  if  no 
ore  was  brought  down  the  Lakes  during  that  time.3 

The  Carnegie  plan  of  granting  bonuses  to  employees  in  a  posi- 
tion to  effect  economies  and  increase  efficiency  had  been  extended 
to  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  and  its  chief  engineers  and 
masters  had  received  such  bonuses  since  1901.4  The  individual 
contract  system,  tried  upon  the  engineers  after  the  success  of 
their  strike  in  1901,  was  now  tried  upon  the  masters.  Other 
vessel  owners  followed  the  lead  of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Com- 
pany is  asking  their  captains  to  sign  individual  contracts.  After 
a  rumor  had  been  spread  that  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Com- 
pany expected  to  reduce  the  pay  of  the  captains  in  1904,  the  new 
manager  let  it  be  known  that  captains  could  not  consider  them- 
selves in  his  employ  for  the  coming  season,  as  was  the  custom 
for  regularly  employed  vessel  captains  on  the  Lakes,  but  that 
they  must  make  application  for  their  former  positions.5  The 
consumption  of  iron  and  steel  products  had  decreased  during  the 
previous  year  and  Steel  Corporation  dividends  were  not  as  high 
as  expected.6  A  policy  of  retrenchment  wras  announced. 

"While  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  was  trying  to  break  the 
solidarity  of  the  masters,  the  other  unions,  after  having  planned 
for  the  coming  conferences  since  the  close  of  the  season  of  1903, 

2  Marine  Eeview,  March  24,  1904,  p.  26. 
s  Ibid.,  July  21,  1904,  p.  23. 
*  Ibid.,  Jan.  2,  1902,  p.  6. 

s  Ibid.,  Jan.  14,  1904,  p.  18;  Feb.  25,  1904,  p.  22. 

e  Ore  shipments  were  12  per  cent  less  in  1903  than  in  1902  but  furnace 
interests  had  greater  reserves  at  the  end  of  1903  than  of  1902. 


213]  DISRUPTION   OF    UNIONS  63 

were  put  off  from  time  to  time  until  the  last  of  April  and  the 
first  two  weeks  in  May.  The  season  started  late  owing  partly  to 
trouble  with  the  masters  and  mates  and  partly  to  the  uncertainty 
of  the  market  for  ore.  As  in  1903,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion did  not  "recognize"  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  As- 
sociation nor  sign  an  agreement  with  them ;  but  on  May  13,  1904, 
the  Lake  Carriers'  president  wrote  the  lake  business  manager  of 
the  union  as  follows : 7 

In  reply  to  your  proposition  for  scale  of  wages  for  steamers  of  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association  for  the  season  of  1904,  would  say  that  our  Executive 
Committee  have  accepted  your  proposition,  and  herewith  beg  to  notify  you 
of  such  acceptance. 

The  scale  was  the  same  as  for  1903. 

The  delay  in  starting  the  boats,  added  to  the  greater  solidarity 
of  the  owners  in  resisting  demands  of  the  unions,  placed  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  a  more  advantageous  position  in 
bargaining  with  the  other  unions.  The  firemen  were  signed  up 
first  —  on  April  27,  1904.8  The  important  changes  in  this  con- 
tract were  as  follows:  A  reduction  of  wages  of  $2.50  per  month 
to  October  1.  This  made  firemen's  wages  the  same  as  for  able 
seamen  in  1903.  Twelve  hours'  notice  was  required  before  a  fire- 
man was  permitted  to  quit  a  boat  and  captains  were  permitted 
to  lay  off  crews  when  delayed  in  port  longer  than  three  days. 
Barge  engineers  were  eliminated  from  the  agreement. 

The  contract  with  the  Lake  Seamen's  union  eliminated  the 
overtime  clause  and  permitted  the  owners  to  lay  off  crews  when 
vessels  were  delayed  in  port  longer  than  three  days.  Barge  en- 
gineers were  to  be  employed  regardless  of  their  union  affiliation. 
This  contract  was  signed  May  12,  1904.  Both  the  Lake  Sea- 
men's Union  and  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association 
presented  demands  for  an  agreement  for  a  union  of  cooks,  but  the 
demands  of  the  longshoremen  were  not  founded  upon  a  sufficient- 
ly representative  membership  to  gain  the  support  of  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association  and  the  cooks  affiliated  with  the  seamen 
were  given  the  contract  instead.9  Nevertheless  the  existence  of 
the  dual  unions  weakened  the  bargaining  power  of  the  cooks. 
The  season  differential  from.  $66  per  month  in  the  spring  to  $86 

7  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers '  Benevolent  Association,  1905,  p.  36. 
s  Information  taken  from  printed  agreements. 
9  Ms.  minutes  of  wage  conference,  1904,  p.  15. 


64  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [214 

after  October  1  was  changed,  to  a  flat  rate  of  $70  per  month  for 
the  season.  The  question  of  carrying  porters  on  boats  was 
eliminated  and  a  provision  was  inserted  permitting  the  captains 
to  employ  women  cooks  under  specified  conditions.  The  cooks 
were  also  deprived  of  their  freedom  from  working  under  police 
protection.  This  contract  was  signed  May  12. 

In  February,  1904,  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and 
Pilots  asked  for  a  conference  with  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion.10 This  request  was  ignored.  Meantime  the  captains  re- 
turned the  individual  contracts  to  the  owners,  unsigned.  The 
association  then  decided  to  meet  the  captains  and  throughout 
April  and  May  conferences  were  held  between  the  representa- 
tives of  the  masters  and  the  executive  committee  of  the  owners 
but  no  agreement  was  reached.  The  basic  issue  involved  was  the 
demand  for  recognition  of  the  American  Association  of  Masters 
and  Pilots  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.  All  other  issues 
either  emanated  from  this  or  were  soon  waived  by  the  union.11 
"When  a  deadlock  occurred  and  a  season's  tieup  of  the  boats  was 
threatened,  the  Cleveland  branch  of  the  National  Civic  Federa- 
tion offered  its  services  as  arbitrator  of  the  dispute.  Both  the 
union  and  the  association  laid  their  cases  before  the  Federation, 
but  the  association  was  unwilling  to  submit  its  case  to  arbitra- 
tion.12 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  stated  that  their  refusal  to 
deal  with  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  this  union  the  master  of  the  boat,  the  per- 
sonal representative  of  the  owner,  was  banded  together  with  his 
subordinates  who,  through  superiority  of  numbers,  could  outvote 
him  and  hence  control  the  union.13  In  rendering  its  decision  the 
committee  of  the  Civic  Federation  said : 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  gave  us  to  understand  that  they  would 
not  only  be  willing  to  deal  and  make  contracts  with  an  association  formed 
by  the  mates  alone  and  another  association  formed  by  the  masters  alone, 
but  that  they  would  encourage  and  facilitate  the  organization  of  such 

10  Marine  Review,  Feb.  11,  1904,  p.  26. 

11  Other  demands  made  at  first  inclu.ded  the  right  of  captains  to  hire 
mates  and  the  payment  by  the  owner  of  a  full  season's  salary  unless  the 
captain  be  discharged  for  cause.     Statement  "by  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
to  the  Cleveland  Civic  Federation,  1904,  p.  10. 

12  Marine  Review,  June  9,  1904,  p.  24. 

is  Statement  to  Civic  Federation,  op.  tit.,  p.  4. 


215]  DISRUPTION    OF   UNIONS  65 

unions  or  associations,  as  they  believe,  the  organization  of  such  separate 
unions  or  associations  would  be  along  the  lines  of  other  separate  and  inde- 
pendent organizations  pertaining  to  the  lake  commerce.  .  .1* 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee,  based  upon  information  received  by 
them  during  these  various  hearings,  that  growing  out  of  the  change  which 
has  been  going  on  so  rapidly,  which  has  resulted  in  the  passing  of  the 
ownership  of  the  lake  vessels  from  individual  and  private  ownership  to 
corporate  and  syndicate  ownership,  various  abuses  have  crept  in,  of  which 
the  masters  and  mates  have  reasonable  ground  to  complaints 

While  negotiations  for  settlement  were  under  way,  the  officials 
of  the  Lake  Carriers '  Association  were  making  all  possible  efforts 
to  secure  enough  licensed  men  to  start  a  few  of  the  boats  and 
break  the  strike.  Threats  were  made  that  steps  would  be  taken 
to  have  the  licenses  revoked  unless  the  men  returned  to  their 
boats.18  All  other  labor  on  the  boats  was  under  contract  not  to 
participate  in  a  strike  so  that  the  owners  had  no  fear  of  a  sympa- 
thetic strike.  They  recognized,  however,  that  the  masters  alone 
could  prevent  the  operation  of  the  boats  if  they  only  held  to- 
gether ;  for  without  licensed  men  to  operate  them,  the  boats  could 
not  leave  port.  A  minority  of  the  owners  were  willing  to  grant 
the  demands  of  the  union  rather  than  have  their  boats  continue 
idle.  Again  the  Steel  Corporation  threatened  a  loss  of  business 
to  any  who  surrendered  to  the  union  and  the  members  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  were  ordered  by  their  executive  com- 
mittee to  keep  ' '  hands  off  the  captain  question  altogether ;  not  to 
start  any  boats  and  not  to  try  to  start  any. "  1T 

The  furnace  interests,  and  especially  the  Steel  Corporation, 
were  determined  to  carry  the  fight  to  a  finish  at  this  time.  To 
do  so  they  must  break  the  union  and  at  the  same  time  hold  the 
owners  together.  To  break  the  strike  it  was  necessary  to  secure 

i*  Mr.  Coulby,  in  addressing  the  committee  on  this  subject,  said :  "  I  don 't 
stand  before  you  people  as  an  opponent  of  organizations.  .  .  I  have 
said  here,  and  I  say  it  again,  and  am  perfectly  willing  to  stand  by  it,  that 
in  this  Twentieth  Century,  when  a  man  speaks  against  organizations  he  is 
behind  the  times.  I  believe  in  organizations.  Have  no  objections  to  the 
captains  organizing  by  themselves,  but  I  think  as  he  occupies  that  unique 
position,  there  should  be  no  subordinates  to  control  him. ' '  At  the  same 
time  Mr.  Coulby  expressed  a  willingness  to  deal  with  a  captain's  organiza- 
tion and  a  mates'  organization,  "properly  organized."  Statement  to  Civic 
Federation,  op.  cit.,  pp.  21-22. 

15  Marine  Review,  July  9,  1904,  p.  35. 

i«  Statement  to  the  Civic  Federation,  op.  cit.,  p.  2. 

"  Ms.  minutes  of  proceedings,  May  20,  1904. 


66  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [216 

only  a  few  strike-breakers,  enough  to  start  a  few  boats  and  in- 
duce others  to  follow.  It  was  suggested  that  three  or  five  year 
contracts  be  given  any  who  would  withdraw  from  the  union.18 
By  appealing  to  the  personal  friendship  and  allegiance  of  some 
of  the  older  and  more  conservative  captains  and  by  promising 
rapid  advancement  to  some  of  the  young  and  ambitious  mates, 
enough  men  were  secured  to  break  the  strike.  As  soon  as  the 
break  came  the  masters  and  mates  very  rapidly  sought  to  make 
terms  with  the  owners.  By  the  time  the  head  of  the  union  ad- 
vised a  return  to  work  150  boats  were  in  commission ; 19  and  by 
the  middle  of  June  the  strike  was  over.  The  iron  industry  was 
not  affected  by  the  strike  since  the  surplus  of  ore  on  the  docks 
was  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  all  demands  of  the  furnaces. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and 
Pilots  disappeared  from  the  Lakes.  The  captains  resigned  in  a 
body  and  the  mates  were  forced  to  withdraw  before  they  were 
given  positions  on  the  boats.20 

In  reality  it  was  the  individualism  of  these  men  which  defeated 
their  collective  purposes.  Being  in  a  position  to  dictate  to 
others  on  their  boats,  rather  than  to  be  dictated  to,  the  masters 
had  suffered  long  before  joining  in  a  collective  protest  to  the 
vessel  owners.  And  when  they  finally  rebelled,  the  same  refusal 
to  abide  by  the  dictation  of  others,  even  though  such  others  be  a 
majority  of  the  men  in  their  own  trade,  caused  some  of  them  to 
accept  an  immediate  satisfaction  of  their  individual  desires  in 
preference  to  a  postponed  satisfaction  of  their  collective  de- 
mands. Another  factor  which  made  them  hesitate  to  risk  their 
chances  of  employment  was  the  fact  that  these  men  possessed  a 
degree  of  skill  as  master  of  a  boat  which  could  not  be  transferred 
readily  to  any  other  line  of  work.  Their  union  was,  after  all,  an 
anomaly  since  the  purpose  of  the  captains  was  not  at  all  the  pur- 
pose of  the  mates.  The  captains  wanted,  first  of  all,  a  return 
of  their  authority  and  prerogatives  as  absolute  masters  of  their 
crafts  and  control  over  all  men  under  them,  including  the  mates. 
Many  of  the  mates  had  first  papers  and  were  potential  captains. 
Hence  the  captains  must  have  secured  their  cooperation  to  pre- 

is  Ms.  minutes  of  proceedings  of  executive  committee  of  Lake  Carriers' 
Association,  May  24,  1904. 

i»  Marine  Eeview,  June  16,  1904,  p.  22. 
20  Ibid.,  June  23,  1904,  p.  32. 


217]  DISRUPTION    OF   UNIONS  67 

vent  their  use  by  the  owners  in  case  of  strike.  The  mates,  on  the 
other  hand,  desired  an  organization  for  trade  union  purposes. 

The  executive  committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
had  endorsed  the  principles  of  unionism  in  their  statements  to 
the  Civic  Federation,  but  had  objected  to  a  union  which  con- 
tained both  masters  and  mates.  Nevertheless  the  same  commit- 
tee at  its  meeting  on  July  21,  1904,  discussed  the  formation  of  an 
organization  of  captains,  mates,  and  vessel  owners  so  formed  as  to 
safeguard  the  interest  of  the  latter.21  No  action  was  taken, 
however,  but  instead  arrangements  were  made  to  secure  admis- 
sion of  owners,  managers,  and  stockholders  to  honorary  member- 
ship in  the  Ship  Masters'  Association  which  had  continued  its 
existence  as  a  beneficiary  organization  through  the  rise  and  de- 
cline of  the  American  Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots.22 

Following  the  lead  of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  the 
owners  took  various  means  of  getting  into  closer  touch  with  their 
captains.  They  tried  to  overcome  the  antagonism  of  interest 
which  had  developed  with  the  appearance  of  impersonal  manage- 
ment of  the  boats.  The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  too  gave 
recognition  to  the  captains  and  asked  some  of  them  to  aid  in 
making  agreements  with  their  subordinates  on  the  boats.23  This 

21  Ms.  proceedings,  July  21,  1904. 

22  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1905,  p.  26. 
83  Ms.  minutes  of  wage  conferences,  passim. 

The  association  admitted  the  truth  of  the  complaints  made  by  the  cap- 
tains against  the  impersonal  management  of  the  boats.  Concerning  this 
question  the  president  of  the  association  said: 

"  'It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good.'  While  the  strike  was 
costly  to  everyone  concerned;  while  it  at  the  time  engendered  very  much 
misunderstanding  and  consequent  bitterness,  yet  it  remains  to  be  said  that 
the  thorough  consideration  of  the  whole  subject  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
owners,  the  masters,  the  mates  and  all  licensed  officers  to  the  fact  that 
abuses  had  been  permitted  to  come  into  the  business  of  operating  our  ships. 
One  which  was  the  most  striking  was  the  tendency  which  had  been  de- 
veloping of  operating  ships  too  much  from  the  shore.  Just  as  the  owners 
saw  the  incongruity  of  having  a  number  of  men  in  an  association  regulate 
the  conduct  of  the  masters  and  other  licensed  officers  under  general  rules 
upon  some  dead  level  which  might  or  might  not  regard  the  needs  and  busi- 
ness conditions  of  the  owner  and  the  ship,  so  were  the  owners  impressed 
as  the  result  of  this  study  that  they  should,  as  far  as  possible,  separate 
those  matters  which  must  be  attended  to  in  the  office  from  those  which  re- 
late to  the  executive  duties  of  the  masters,  engineers  and  mates,  whom  they 
employ  on  their  ships,  and  who  are  required  to  act  from  hour  to  hour  upon 


68  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [218 

led  to  a  more  cordial  relationship  between  owners  and  captains 
and  helped  to  kill  the  spirit  of  unionism  among  the  latter.  But 
it  did  nothing  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  mates  except  as  the 
mates  looked  forward  to  promotion  and  identified  their  interest 
with  that  of  the  masters. 

Although  forced  to  surrender  membership  in  the  American 
Association  of  Masters  and  Pilots  in  order  to  obtain  employment 
after  the  strike,  the  mates  still  cherished  hopes  of  an  effective 
union.  Taking  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  at  its  word,  the 
mates  started  a  movement  to  form  a  union  at  the  close  of  the 
season  of  1904.24  The  association  not  only  refused  to  recognize 
this  union  but  at  the  meeting  of  the  executive  committee  on 
February  22,  1905,  it  was  voted  that  no  member  of  the  associa- 
tion be  permitted  to  hire  a  mate  who  was  a  member  of  any 
marine  organization  on  the  Lakes.25  Recognition  was  refused  to 
the  new  union  on  the  ground  that  the  mate  was  next  in  line  to 
succeed  the  captain  and  already  exercised  his  functions  during 
the  captain's  absence  from  the  boat. 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  had  anticipated  trouble  with 
the  masters  and  yet  were  surprised  at  their  strength.  A  more 
systematic  method  of  acquiring  knowledge  of  the  strength  of  the 
other  unions,  to  be  used  in  future  difficulties  if  necessary,  was 
planned  on  July  21,  1904,  when  the  executive  committee  gave  the 
president  of  the  association  power  to  ' '  incur  the  expense  for  such 
information  as  he  may  think  necessary/'  At  the  same  meeting 
a  general  organiation  of  the  men  on  the  boats,  "which  would  is- 
sue to  employees  a  book  similar  to  the  present  union  book"  and 
which  would  be  managed  and  controlled  by  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  was  discussed.26  The  chief  counsel  of  the  association 
announced  that  he  was  already  at  work  upon  plans  for  such  an 

their  judgement  at  the  moment  and  be  responsible  for  reasonable  judgement 
and  efficiency  and  results."  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association, 
1904,  p.  7. 

24  Marine  Beview,  Dec.  29,  1904,  p.  21. 

25  Ms.  proceedings,  Feb.  22,  1905.     Previous  to  this  time  the  Pittsburg 
Steamship  Company  had  given  its  masters  permission  to  employ  their  mates, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  company,  but  it  was  "specifically  reserved 
that  mates  belonging  to  a  union  shall  not  be  employed."     Marine  Review, 
Jan.  5,  1905,  p.  23. 

26  Ms.  proceedings,  July  21,  1904. 


219]  DISRUPTION    OP   UNIONS  69 

organization  and  that  he  would  submit  his  plans  as  soon  as  they 
were  completed. 

On  November  7,  1904,  the  executive  committee  considered  the 
matter  of  requiring  the  engineers  employed  by  the  members  of 
the  association  to  withdraw  from  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevo- 
lent Association  since  an  engineer's  affiliation  with  that  union 
was  declared  to  be  "inconsistent  with  the  full  and  free  per- 
formance of  his  duty  to  his  employer. ' ' 27  Remembering  the 
bitter  experience  with  this  union  in  1901  and  anticipating 
trouble  with  some  of  the  other  employees  in  1905  no  action  was 
taken.  Instead  it  was  decided  to  try  to  induce  the  engineers  to 
withdraw  from  their  union  without  strike  if  possible.  Mr.  Coulby 
planned  to  meet  with  the  engineers  of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship 
Company  in  December,  1904,  and  discuss  the  matter  with  them 
but  later  decided  that  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for  such  a  move 
and  withdrew  the  call  for  the  meeting.28 

During  the  winter  of  1904-1905  labor  questions  were  given 
much  attention  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  who  looked 
with  alarm  upon  the  growth  of  the  lake  unions  and  of  the  Amer- 
ican Federation  of  Labor  which  was  already  represented  on  the 
Lakes  by  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association  with  its 
many  trades  and  the  Lake  Seamen 's  Union,  and  which  had  made 
overtures  to  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association 29 
and  the  mates.30  At  the  meeting  of  the  executive  committee  on 
January  11,  1905,  during  the  discussion  of  labor  troubles  the 
need  of  a  treasury  of  $100,000  was  urged  "in  order  to  provide 
for  any  emergencies  which  may  arise  which  would  require  the 
use  of  a  large  amount  of  money. "  81  At  the  general  meeting  of 
the  association  two  days  later  the  president  dwelt  upon  the  grow- 
ing strength  of  labor  and  urged  that  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation should  "gradually,  at  least,  prepare  itself  so  that  its 
members  will  be  able  to  absolutely  control  the  property  under 

27  Ms.  proceedings,  Nov.  7,  1904. 

28  Marine  Eeview,  Dec.  29,  1904,  p.  32.    Again  Mr.  Coulby  tried  to  make 
individual  contracts  with  the  engineers  in  his  fleet,  offering  them  more  than 
they  would  obtain  through  a  trade  agreement  with  the  Lake  Carriers'  As- 
sociation.    Ibid.,  Jan.  5,  1905,  p.  23. 

29  Marine  Record,  Jan.  30,  1901,  p.  7. 
so  Marine  Review,  June  9,  1904,  p.  23. 
81  Ms.  proceedings,  Jan.  11,  1905. 


70  WAGE  BARGAINING  ON  LAKES  [220 

their  charge."  Open  shop  was  discussed  and  a  minority  urged 
that  the  time  was  ripe  to  take  action  against  the  unions  and 
suggested  the  immediate  adoption  of  the  policy  of  "open 
shop. ' ' 32  The  decision  was  left  with  the  executive  committee 
since  certain  complications  prevented  the  adoption  of  such  a 
policy  at  that  time. 

Less  than  22,000,000  tons  of  ore  had  been  brought  down  the 
Lakes  in  1904.  This  was  a  smaller  amount  than  had  been 
brought  down  during  either  of  the  two  preceding  years  and  al- 
though the  furnace  demand  had  decreased  during  1903-1904  the 
amount  of  ore  in  reserve  at  the  end  of  the  season  of  1904  was 
small.  Therefore  it  was  thought  best  not  to  risk  a  tie-up  of  the 
boats  at  the  beginning  of  a  year  when  shipments  were  expected 
to  be  heavy.  For  this  reason  trade  agreements  were  continued. 
The  captains  were  dealt  with  individually.  Some  owners  ob- 
jected when  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  made  contracts 
with  its  captains  in  December,  1904,  and  thereby  set  a  standard 
which  other  owners  were  unwilling  to  pay.  But  since  such  con- 
tracts were  permitted  by  the  constitution  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  no  action  could  be  taken. 

As  in  the  two  preceding  years  it  was  decided  that  it  would  not 
be  good  policy  to  "recognize"  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent 
Association  by  giving  its  officers  a  signed  agreement.  Instead 
the  lake  business  manager  of  the  union  was  notified  that  the  as- 
sociation would  pay  the  union  scale  for  the  season  of  1905.33 
This  was  the  same  as  for  1904  except  that  a  few  engineers  on 
boats  of  more  than  5,500  tons  gross  register  received  the  follow- 
ing increases:  $5  per  month  for  second  assistant  engineer,  $15 
for  first  assistant,  and  $25  for  chief  engineer. 

The  agreements  with  the  seamen  and  the  cooks  were  signed 
March  3.  The  seamen  asked  a  considerable  advance  in  wages  but 
the  only  increase  granted  was  tha.t  given  to  deckhands  —  a 
change  from  $25.00  to  $27.50  from  the  opening  of  navigation  to 
the  first  of  October.  The  clause  in  the  1904  contract  which  pro- 
vided that  a  boat  detained  in  port  could  dismiss  its  crew  only  at 
the  end  of  three  days  was  left  out  of  the  1905  contract.  The 
cooks  also  demanded  a  large  increase  in  wages  but  were  given 

32  Marine  Review,  Jan.  19,  1905,  p.  17. 

33  Report  of  Lake  Business  Manager  of  Marme  Engineers '  Benevolent 
Association,  1905,  p.  24. 


221]  DISRUPTION    OF   UNIONS  71 

none.34  A  porter  was  granted  on  vessels  of  over  4,000  tons 
gross  tonnage  and  on  smaller  vessels  whenever  three  or  more 
passengers  were  carried.  Both  the  seamen's  and  the  cooks'  de- 
mands were  for  additional  concessions  and  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  had  little  difficulty  in  defeating  them. 

The  ease  with  the  firemen  was  different.  In  1904  the  wages 
of  the  firemen  had  been  reduced  and  this  union  laid  its  plans  to 
regain  the  loss.  Anticipating  possible  trouble  with  this  union, 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  was  anxious  to  sign  the  other 
unions  early  so  that  the  firemen  would  be  the  only  class  of  labor 
to  deal  with  in  case  of  trouble.  Another  danger  which  the  asso- 
ciation was  trying  to  guard  against  was  the  possibility  of  the 
firemen  trying  to  aid  the  mates.  Before  a  conference  was 
granted  to  the  firemen's  union,  the  president  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  secured  promises  from  the  officials  of  the 
Lake  Seamen's  Union  and  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent 
Association  that  these  two  organizations  would  help  the  owners 
to  secure  strike-breakers  in  case  the  firemen's  union  started  a 
strike.35  The  demands  of  the  firemen  for  increased  wages' were 
then  refused.  After  a  threatened  strike  and  a  referendum  to 
the  members  of  the  union,  the  1904  scale  was  accepted.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  seamen,  the  three  day  retention  clause  was  left 
out  of  the  contract  for  1905.  This  agrement  was  signed  March 
27,  1905.  The  mates  were  not  strong  enough  to  make  collective 
demands  and  they  accepted  the  scale  set  by  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association. 

Throughout  the  season  of  1905  the  firemen  continued  to  give 
the  vessel  owners  a  great  deal  of  trouble  by  deserting  the  boats 
at  the  upper  lake  ports  and  by  violating  the  agreements  in  other 
ways.  At  the  1905  wage  conference  Mr.  Coulby  suggested  that 
the  firemen  deposit  their  union  books  with  the  captain,  to  be 
forfeited  in  case  the  agreement  was  violated.36  This  suggestion 
was  overruled  by  the  union  delegates.  The  association  then  sys- 
tematically laid  their  plans  to  rid  themselves  of  the  firemen's 
union  and  the  president  of  the  association  conducted  a  campaign 
to  learn  of  all  violations  of  agreements  by  the  firemen  in  order 

s*  Annual  "Report  Lake  Carriers1  Association,  1905,  p.  3. 
ss  Ms.  proceedings  of  executive  committee  of  Lake  Carriers '  Association, 
Mar.  22  and  23,  1905. 

ss  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1905,  p.  5. 


72  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [222 

to  have  ' '  ammunition ' '  to  use  against  the  attacks  of  other  unions, 
members  of  the  association  who  were  hesitant  about  antagonizing 
the  union,  and  the  public.37 

In  the  meantime  complications  arose  in  the  mates'  controversy. 
Their  union  not  only  was  not  "recognized"  by  the  association, 
but  its  members  were  blacklisted  by  the  vessel  owners.  Surplus 
captains  could  be  used  in  their  places  in  case  of  strike,  while 
wheelsmen  and  watchmen  were  always  in  line  to  succeed  them  as 
soon  as  licenses  could  be  secured.  Alone  the  mates'  union  was 
powerless.  They  could  no  longer  rely  upon  the  captains  for 
support  so  they  must  look  to  the  unions  of  their  subordinates. 
Both  the  seamen  and  the  longshoremen  were  not  only  willing  but 
anxious  to  accept  their  affiliation.  In  fact  immediately  after 
the  strike  in  1904  both  of  these  trades  took  steps  to  reorganize 
the  mates.38  In  the  case  of  the  seamen  this  was  a  defensive 
move  while  in  the  case  of  the  longshoremen  it  was  another  step 
in  the  direction  of  the  hoped-for  industrial  union  of  lake  trades. 
The  mates  were  in  a  position  to  hire  and  discharge  seamen.  By 
having  them  affiliated  with  the  International  Longshoremen 's  As- 
sociation, the  officials  of  that  union  could  control  the  seamen  and 
force  them  to  pool  their  interests.  To  avert  this  danger  the 
Lake  Seamen's  Union  offered  aid  to  the  mates  as  a  defensive 
measure. 

Throughout  the  season  of  1905  the  fight  to  organize  the  mates 
was  continued.  Both  sides  claimed  a  majority  at  the  opening  of 
the  season  in  1906  though  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the 
Lake  Seamen's  Union  had  more  than  a  mere  handful  in  their 
organization ;  while  the  stronger  International  Longshoremen 's 
Association  had  attracted  a  majority  of  the  mates  on  the  Lakes. 
When  the  seamen  met  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  arrange 
contracts  for  the  seamen  and  the  cooks  to  cover  the  season  of  1906 
demands  were  made  for  the  recognition  of  the  seamen  contingent 
of  the  mates.39  Threats  were  made  that  without  such  recogni- 
tion no  agreements  whatever  would  be  signed.  This  demand  was 
refused  and  upon  the  declared  intention  of  the  association  to 
terminate  the  conference  and  institute  "open  shop"  the  demands 

37  From  correspondence  concerning  firemen. 

38  Proceedings  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  1905,  p.  17.     Proceedings  Interna- 
tional Longshoremen's  Association,  1905,  p.  36. 

so  Marine  Review,  Mar.  29,  1906,  p.  23. 


223]  DISRUPTION   OF   UNIONS  73 

were  withdrawn.  Both,  the  seamen  and  the  cooks  signed  con- 
tracts for  1906  which  were  essentially  the  same  as  for  1905,  ex- 
cept that  the  seamen  were  again  granted  payment  for  overtime. 
The  usual  understanding  was  reached  with  the  engineers. 

The  longshoremen  refused  to  deal  with  either  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  or  the  Dock  Managers'  Association  until  the 
former  were  willing  to  recognize  the  longshoremen  contingent  of 
the  mates.40  The  agreement  with  the  dock  managers  did  not 
expire  until  May  1,  1906.  At  midnight,  April  30,  all  members 
of  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association,  including  all 
men  employed  on  the  docks,  the  grain  scoopers,  the  men  em- 
ployed on  the  tugs,  and  the  firemen,  oilers,  and  water  tenders  on 
the  boats,  were  called  out  in  sympathy  with  the  mates.  Only 
the  mates  themselves  refused  to  strike  en  masse,41  By  offering 
inducements  and  making  threats  the  vessel  owners  were  able  to 
keep  enough  mates  on  the  boats  to  break  the  strike  which  was 
officially  called  off  May  9,  1906.42  Again  the  vessel  owners  were 
successful  and  a  second  union  disappeared  from  the  Lakes. 

Since  1902  the  seamen  had  been  trying  to  induce  the  firemen 
to  break  with  the  longshoremen.  The  firemen  were  still  hopeful 
of  increasing  their  wages  and  expected  an  increase  in  1906  by 
supporting  the  strike  for  the  mates.  With  the  union  defeat  in 
this  strike  the  firemen  accepted  the  1905  scale  and  conditions. 
Even  then,  because  of  the  numerous  troubles  with  the  firemen, 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  wanted  only  a  trial  agreement,  to 
be  abandoned  if  not  lived  up  to.43  The  failure  to  secure  the  ex- 
pected increase  in  wages  was  blamed  by  the  firemen  upon  the 
officials  of  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association. 
Trouble  arose  within  the  firemen's  union  and  a  movement  was 
started  to  withdraw  from  the  longshoremen.  Partly  because  of 
these  internal  troubles,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  exper- 
ienced unusual  difficulties  with  the  firemen  during  1906.44  Vio- 

40  Marine  Eeview,  Mar.  22,  1906,  p.  22. 
4i/&id.,  May  3,  1906,  p.  27. 

42  md.,  May  10,  1906,  p.  21. 

43  Ms.  minutes  of  wage  conference,  1906,  passim. 

**  Marine  Eeview,  Sept.  27,  1906,  p.  22.  In  his  report  for  1906  the  pres- 
ident of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  said  that  "constant  complaint  and 
appeals  to  the  officers  of  the  firemen's  union  were  unavailing  to  remedy  the 
evils,  largely  due  to  the  fact,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that  they  were  utterly 


74  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [224 

lations  of  agreements,  especially  the  clause  requiring  twelve 
hours '  notice  before  quitting  the  boat,  were  numerous  throughout 
the  season.  In  addition,  the  union  was  able  to  furnish  only  about 
60  per  cent  of  the  number  of  firemen  required  on  the  boats,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  they  had  a  closed  union  shop  agreement 
and  were  obligated  to  supply  all  the  men  required.  The  initia- 
tion fee  of  the  union  at  this  time  was  $25,  a  prohibitory  fee  for 
that  class  of  labor.  The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  took  advan- 
tage of  this  opportunity  to  secure  and  train  non-unnion  men 
and  again  planned  to  exterminate  the  firemen's  union.45 

It  had  been  customary  for  the  seamen  and  cooks  to  refuse  to 
sign  agreements  with  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  until  its 
representatives  were  ready  to  sign  with  both  unions.  During 
the  year  1906  the  firemen  withdrew  from  the  International  Long- 
shoremen's Association  and  affiliated  with  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union.46  When  the  wage  conferences  were  held  in  1907  the 
officials  of  the  union  refused  to  sign  for  one  of  its  three  classes 
of  members  until  the  association  was  willing  to  sign  for  all. 
This  forced  the  issue  as  to  whether  or  not  the  fight  would  be  made 
upon  the  firemen  in  1907.  The  outlook  for  the  year  was  so 
bright  that  the  owners  did  not  wish  to  experience  the  delays  of 
a  strike  so  the  agreements  were  renewed.  Conferences  were  held 
late  because  of  Mr.  Coulby  's  absence  from  the  Lakes.  The  agree- 
ments were  signed  April  13,  1907. 

In  exchange  for  the  overtime  clause,  which  was  again  stricken 

unable  to  control  their  men."  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association, 
1906,  p.  4. 

45  In  reply  to  a  letter  from  a  captain  protesting  against  the  violations  of 
agreements  by  the  firemen,  the  president  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
said  on  July  30,  1906:  "I  fully  agree  with  your  sentiments  expressed  in 
your  letter.  The  position  with  the  firemen  this  year  has  become  nearly 
unbearable.  There  are  several  reasons  which  make  it  worse  than  usual. 
They  are  having  internal  dissensions;  they  also  have  practically  a  prohibi- 
tion price  or  initiation  fee  which  prevents  their  getting  new  members;  they 
have  not  near  enough  men  to  furnish  what  is  required;  their  officers  seem 
to  have  lost  control  of  them.  It  will  certainly  be  a  happy  day  when  we  are 
rid  of  the  whole  bunch.  In  my  judgment  the  sooner  we  reach  that  point 
the  better  we  will  be  off.  The  middle  of  the  season  of  course  is  a  bad  time 
to  have  a  break  if  it  can  reasonably  be  avoided  but  I  feel  reasonably  sure 
that  our  Executive  Committee  will  take  some  drastic  measures  this  winter 
regarding  the  future." 

*6  Proceedings  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  1907,  p.  3. 


225]  DISRUPTION   OF   UNIONS  75 

from  the  agreement,  the  able  seamen  were  given  an  advance  in 
wages  from  $45.00  to  $50.00  per  month  from  the  opening  of  navi- 
gation to  October  1,  and  the  deckhands  were  given  an  increase  of 
$2.50  per  month  throughout  the  season.47  The  firemen  and  cooks 
received  advances  similar  to  that  of  the  able  seamen.  The  cap- 
tains were  given  individual  appointments  as  usual  and  the  mates 
accepted  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  scale  which  was  an  ad- 
vance of  about  8  per  cent  over  the  preceding  year,  to  correspond 
with  the  advances  granted  their  subordinates  on  the  boats. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  union,  the  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association  received  a  signed  agrement  in 
1907.  Since  1905  a  few  of  the  fleet  engineers  had  assisted  the 
executive  committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  fram- 
ing agreements  with  the  unions.  After  another  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  induce  the  engineers  to  sign  individual  contracts,  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  called  together  the  fleet  engineers  to 
form  a  permanent  auxiliary  association  to  be  known  as  the  Fleet 
Engineers'  Association.48  Its  chief  purpose  was  to  deal  with 
the  engineers.  It  met  with  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent 
Association  representatives  and  framed  a  tentative  contract  for 
1907  which,  upon  approval  by  the  executive  committee  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association,  was  signed  by  the  new  association. 

Following  the  slack  season  of  1904,  ore  shipments  increased 
over  50  per  cent  in  1905,  while  the  1907  shipments  were  more 
than  double  those  of  1904.  By  early  fall,  1907,  it  was  known 
that  1908  ore  demands  would  be  light  and  that  lake  traffic  would 
suffer  greatly.49  The  movement  of  ore  in  1907,  however,  was  not 
checked  until  furnace  yards  had  become  congested  and  the  stor- 
age capacity  of  the  docks  had  become  exhausted.80  The  largest 
ore  reserve  in  the  history  of  lake  traffic  up  to  that  time  remained 
at  the  close  of  the  season  of  1907.  It  was  estimated  that  with 
normal  consumption,  the  furnace  interests  and  especially  the 

*f  In  speaking  of  the  elimination  of  the  overtime  clause  the  Annual  Ee- 
port  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  said  in  1907  (p.  10):  It  "served 
in  a  large  measure  to  reduce,  although  not  to  entirely  eliminate,  the  friction 
that  has  heretofore  existed  between  the  officers  and  employees  aboard  the 
vessels. ' ' 

48  Marine  Review,  Feb.  14,  1907,  p.  24. 

49/fctd,  Oct.  24,  1907,  p.  21. 

so  Ibid.,  Feb.  20,  1908,  p.  23. 


76  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [226 

United  States  Steel  Corporation  had  enough  reserve  ore  to  run 
the  furnaces  until  September,  1908,  if  none  were  brought  down 
the  Lakes  during  that  time.51 

It  had  been  the  custom  for  several  years  to  maintain  dock 
police  to  keep  the  peace  and  to  protect  property.  In  fact,  since 
the  organization  of  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association 
such  officials  were  always  within  call  in  case  of  need.  During 
the  season  of  1907  this  sort  of  protection  was  supplemented  by 
the  construction  of  high  board  fences  around  the  dock  property 
and  the  introduction  of  a  system  of  admittance  within  the  en- 
closure of  none  but  those  who  could  prove  that  their  business 
within  was  in  the  interest  of  the  vessel  owners  or  the  dock 
managers. 

The  vessel  owners  had  never  given  up  their  intention  of  re- 
turning to  non-unionism  as  soon  as  a  favorable  opportunity  of- 
fered.52 Some  of  the  independents  were  willing  to  try  a  test  of 
strength  at  any  time  since  every  tie-up  of  the  boats  meant  higher 
freight  rates  when  traffic  was  resumed.  The  managers  of  these 
fleets  wrote  many  letters  to  the  president  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association,  asking  him  to  take  action  in  ousting  the  unions.  As 
with  all  policies  of  the  association,  it  was  the  shipper,  and  es- 
pecially the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  who  determined  the 
time  for  discontinuing  the  contracts  with  the  union.  Agree- 
ments were  considered  to  be  a  makeshift  truce  and  not  the  foun- 
dation of  permanent  peace.  The  officials  of  the  unions  recog- 
nized this  fact  also.  They  knew  that  the  existing  relations  with 
the  owners  were  temporary  only  and  that  the  tension  might  reach 
the  breaking  point  at  any  time.58 

5i  The  United  States  Steel  Corporation  had  12,000,000  tons  in  reserve  at 
the  close  of  the  season  of  1907.  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association, 
1908,  p.  9. 

52 Marine  Review,  Apr.  16,  1908,  p.  20,  said  editorially:  "Lake  interests 
have  never  abandoned  the  principle  of  open  shop,  though  for  the  past  few 
years  it  has  seemed  inexpedient  to  enforce  it." 

ss  For  example,  as  early  as  January,  1907,  the  officials  of  the  Lake  Sea- 
men's  Union  urged  the  necessity  of  an  increase  in  dues  to  build  up  a  large 
defense  fund  ' '  to  prepare  for  the  inevitable  struggle  with  the  owners. ' ' 
Proceedings  Lake  Seamen's  Union,  1907,  p.  42.  Again,  on  January  14, 
1908,  before  the  unions  knew  that  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  expected 
to  terminate  the  agreements,  a  joint  conference  of  the  unions  affiliated  with 
the  Lake  Seamen 's  Union  passed  the  following  resolutions :  ' '  Resolved : 
that  in  the  event  of  any  emergency  arising  in  the  nature  of  a  strike  or  lock- 


227]  DISRUPTION   OP   UNIONS  77 

In  the  eyes  of  the  vessel  owners,  trade  agrements  had  failed. 
No  complaint  was  made  about  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent 
Association,  except  that  through  this  strong  organization  the  en- 
gineers were  able  to  exercise  an  undue  influence  in  fixing  wages. 
Individually  the  engineers  had  never  been  a  source  of  annoyance 
to  the  owners.  Even  the  jealousy  between  the  engineers  and 
the  captains  worked  to  the  advantage  of  the  owners  because  it 
weakened  the  bargaining  power  of  both  classes  of  employees. 
The  owners  felt  that  they  had  nothing  to  gain  by  agreements 
with  their  engineers  while  their  experience  with  the  Marine  En- 
gineers' Benevolent  Association  had  been  one  of  victory  for  the 
latter.  As  already  noted,  this  union  was  never  ' '  recognized ' '  by 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and  in  only  one  year,  1907,  was 
it  given  a  contract  by  a  subordinate  association. 

In  the  same  manner  the  owners  believed  that  they  had  nothing 
to  gain  by  granting  contracts  to  unions  of  the  mates  and  captains. 
Wages  were  not  subject  to  sudden  changes  for  this  class  of  labor 
since  the  mates  were  accustomed  to  a  monthly  scale,  set  by  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  for  the  season,  and  the  captains  to  a 
yearly  salary  to  be  agreed  upon  between  the  individual  captain 
and  his  employer.  Under  this  system  the  owner  himself  was  the 
arbitrator  of  disputes.  Under  an  agreement,  such  as  was  pre- 
sented for  approval  in  1904,  the  owner  would  have  relinquished 
this  power  to  the  union  of  captains  and  mates.  It  was  this 
possibility,  rather  than  any  specific  demands  for  changes  in 
wages  or  conditions  of  work,  which  caused  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  to  refuse  to  "recognize"  the  American  Association 
of  Masters  and  Pilots. 

out,  particularly  during  the  coming  season,  the  affiliated  Lake  District 
Unions  of  the  International  Seamen's  Unon  of  America  shall  work  in  con- 
junction with  each  other  at  all  times,  and  that  in  order  to  have  a  clear  and 
definite  understanding  of  the  acts  and  intentions  of  the  Unions  affected,  be 
it  further 

"Resolved:  that  none  of  the  affiliated  Unions  of  the  Lake  District  shall 
in  any  way  involve  itself  or  themselves  in  any  sympathetic  strike  of  any 
nature  or  form  any  alliance  with  any  of  the  organizations  not  a  part  of 
the  International  Seamen's  Union  of  America  except  with  the  consent  and 
approval  of  the  other  Lake  District  Unions.  And  be  it  further 

"Resolved:  that  no  action  likely  to  precipitate  a  strike  or  lockout  shall 
be  taken  by  any  of  the  organizations  without  first  consulting  with  the 
executive  officers  or  executive  authorities  of  the  other  unions."  Ms.  pro- 
ceedings, pp.  2-3. 


78  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [228 

Aside  from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  strength  of  the  other 
unions  and  the  weakness  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  which 
forced  the  introduction  of  contracts  with  all  employees  below 
licensed  officers  in  1903,  the  vessel  owners  hoped  that  such  con- 
tracts would  make  two  advantageous  changes  in  their  methods 
of  dealing  with  their  employees:  First,  that  yearly  contracts1 
would  insure  the  absence  of  fluctuations  in  wages;  and  second, 
that  union  officials  would  be  able  to  discipline  their  members  and 
bring  about  a  stability  of  tenure  which,  up  to  this  time,  had  never 
been  known  on  the  boats. 

The  agreement  system  accomplished  the  first  of  these  hoped- 
for  results.  From  1903  to  1907  inclusive  there  were  no  author- 
ized wage  strikes  on  the  Lakes.  In  only  one  instance  indeed 
was  there  even  an  approach  to  a  strike  for  wages.  In  1906  one 
fleet  violated  the  age-long  custom  of  paying  for  31  days  in  May 
and  July  and  paid  its  engineers  and  chief  cooks  for  30  days  in- 
stead. A  strike  against  this  line  was  threatened  but  the  officials 
of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  refused  to  uphold  this  breach 
of  custom  and  the  manager  of  the  fleet  paid  for  31  days.54 
Numerous  instances  occurred  where  unauthorized  strikes  of  the 
fireman  or  deckhands  on  a  single  boat  resulted  when  a  deserter  at 
an  upper  lake  port  demanded  pay,  in  violation  of  his  contract, 
and  was  refused.  But  in  general  stability  of  wages  resulted 
from  the  agreements  and  a  vessel  owner  was  reasonably  certain 
of  his  probable  wage  cost  for  the  season  or  so  much  thereof  as  his 
boat  was  in  commission.  Without  doubt  this  gain  was  absolute 
and  exceptions  were  a  negligible  factor. 

Furthermore,  but  little  change  was  made  in  wages  during  the 
time  the  agreements  were  in  operation.  From  1903  to  1907  but 
one  increase  was  granted.  This  affected  only  the  deckhands  and 
amounted  to  but  $2.50  per  month  from  the  opening  of  navigation 
to  October  1.  This  increase  took  effect  in  1905.  Even  this  in- 
crease was  offset  by  a  similar  decrease  to  firemen,  beginning  in 
1904.  This  failure  to  increase  wages  at  a  time  when  the  general 
level  of  wages  throughout  the  United  States  was  rising  may  be 
explained  in  part  by  the  fact  that  the  wage  scale  on  the  boats  in 
1903  was  perhaps  a  little  higher  than  the  average  for  that  class 
of  labor.  The  balance  of  bargaining  power  was  in  favor  of  the 
unions  at  that  time  and  the  element  of  chance  was  still  a  potent 

6*  From  correspondence  concerning  this  case  and  its  adjustment. 


229]  DISRUPTION   OP   UNIONS  79 

factor  in  the  determination  of  both- wages  and  profits.  By  1907 
this  chance  element  had  been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Except 
for  a  slight  decline  in  1904  when  shipments  decreased,  freight 
rates  remained  nearly  stationary  from  1903  to  1907.  In  1907  a 
small  increase  in  wages,  averaging  about  5  per  cent,  was  given 
the  unions  in  exchange  for  the  overtime  clause  and  hence  was 
probably  not  an  increase  after  all.  In  other  respects  than  wages, 
the  1907  contracts  were  considerably  less  advantageous  to  the 
unions  than  were  the  contracts  of  1903. 

The  second  hoped-for  result  —  stability  of  tenure  on  the 
boats  —  was  only  partially  effected  under  the  agreements  and 
can  be  discussed  only  in  relative  and  not  in  absolute  terms.  To 
understand  the  problem  involved,  a  brief  restatement  of  condi- 
tions already  described  is  necessary  here.  In  the  early  days  of 
lake  traffic  it  was  customary  for  the  captain  to  hire  men  for  a 
trip  only  and  to  discharge  them  upon  reaching  port.  Since  a 
new  crew  was  not  secured  until  the  vessel  was  ready  to  leave 
again,  it  was  not  expected  that  a  man  should  remain  on  the  boat 
for  more  than  one  trip  at  a  time.  It  had  become  the  custom, 
therefore,  for  a  captain  to  exact  of  his  men  the  greatest  amount 
of  work  with  the  least  expenditure  for  food  and  the  comforts  of 
life.  Moreover  the  system  of  hiring  and  discharging  men  made 
a  constant  day-to-day  fluctuation  in  the  demand  and  supply 
curve  of  labor  on  the  Lakes.  In  every  activity  of  the  employee 's 
life  irregularity  and  chance  ruled.  Since  their  work  kept  them 
away  from  their  families  for  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year,  un- 
married men  and  young  men  with  whom  family  or  local  ties  were 
insufficient  to  enforce  steady  habits  more  often  took  up  this  work. 
This  set  of  conditions  in  itself  attracted  to  the  Lakes  a  class  of 
irresponsible  adventurers.  The  work  which  they  were  required 
to  do,  the  conditions  under  which  they  lived,  and  the  treatment 
which  they  received  from  the  men  in  authority  over  them,  all 
tended  to  make  them  more  irresponsible  and  more  unsteady  in 
their  habits. 

Beginning  in  the  late  nineties,  some  of  the  larger  fleets  took 
steps  to  remove  the  causes  of  unsteadiness  of  the  men  on  their 
boats  and  to  make  changes  which  would  attract  to  the  Lakes  a 
more  desirable  class  of  men.  This  was  a  mere  beginning  and 
scarcely  touched  the  real  problems  which  have  received  so  much 
attention  since.  Under  the  agreements  the  efforts  of  the  owners 


80  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [230 

to  make  the  work  which  they  had  to  offer  more  attractive  were 
not  pushed  with  the  vigor  that  the  situation  merited.  Instead, 
the  unions  were  made  responsible  for  the  proper  conduct  of  their 
members.  Under  existing  circumstances  this  responsibility  was 
oftentimes  too  great;  with  more  encouragement  and  cooperation 
from  the  vessel  owners,  much  more  could  have  been  accomplished. 

The  firemen  gave  most  trouble.  They  were  the  most  irrespon- 
sible men  on  the  Lakes.  Some  of  them  were  habitual  deserters 
and  could  not  be  held  on  any  boat  for  more  than  a  few  trips.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  boats  could  not  keep  the  best  of  firemen 
more  than  a  few  trips  at  a  time.  The  work  required  of  the  men 
and  the  treatment  which  they  received  made  it  physically  im- 
possible for  them  to  continue  in  the  service  of  the  boat.  Irreg- 
ular habits,  the  nature  of  their  work,  and  the  associations  in  port 
made  drunkenness  common.  This  in  turn  reacted  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  and  their  attitude  toward  their  superiors. 
Local  officials  of  their  unions  were  often  professional  office  hold- 
ers —  some  of  whom  had  been  firemen  while  others  had  ben  bar- 
tenders or  had  followed  some  other  shore  trade.  In  any  case 
their  tenure  of  office  depended  upon  the  suffrage  of  their  con- 
stituency. This  made  them  subject  to  the  whims  of  any  group 
of  firemen  with  influence  enough  to  make  them  a  factor  at  elec- 
tions. Furthermore,  the  general  officers  of  the  firemen's  union 
were  not  always  dependable  and  the  demands  of  their  members 
sometimes  influenced  them  more  than  did  the  signed  agreements. 
As  a  result,  violations  of  agreements  by  firemen  were  common. 
It  sometimes  happened  that  a  fireman  who  deserted  his  boat  and 
was  refused  pay  which  was  not  due  him  under  the  agreement 
appealed  to  the  local  agent  of  the  union.  That  official,  either 
through  fear  of  jeopardizing  his  job  or  through  sympathy  for 
the  deserter,  at  times  called  other  firemen  off  the  boat,  also  in 
violation  of  the  agreement.  If  appeal  was  made  to  the  general 
officers  of  the  union  these  officials  were  not  always  willing  or 
able  to  discipline  the  offenders  even  though  the  offense  was 
proved  to  them. 

Previous  to  1907  but  little  advance  had  been  made  in  the 
direction  of  greater  stability  of  tenure  of  the  firemen.  Indeed 
to  some  of  them  the  agreement  was  an  excuse  for  further  ex- 
cesses than  formerly  for  with  the  power  of  the  union  back  of 
them  the  fear  of  discharge  or  blacklist  disappeared.  Although 


231]  DISRUPTION   OF   UNIONS  81 

affiliated  with  the  International  Longshoremens'  Association,  the 
officials  of  that  organization  were  never  able  to  exercise  the 
control  over  the  firemen  that  they  exercised  over  their  other 
members.  The  Lake  Seamen's  Union  had  better  success  with 
the  firemen  in  1907  and  made  considerable  progress  in  disciplin- 
ing those  who  violated  agreements  and  in  preventing  such  viola^ 
tions. 

Next  to  the  firemen  the  deckhands  gave  most  trouble  to  the 
vessel  owners.  In  addition  to  their  duties  as  forward  deck 
employees  they  were  used  as  coal  passers.  Boats  were  then  so 
constructed  that  coal  passing  was  required.  This  was  unusually 
hard  work.  The  hours  of  the  deckhands  were  long,  often  re- 
quiring their  presence  on  deck  18  to  36  hours  on  one  shift  while 
in  port.  In  the  absence  of  provision  for  extra  pay  for  overtime, 
the  length  of  the  working  day  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
officers  in  charge  of  the  boat.  While  their  work  was  perhaps  not 
as  enervating  as  that  of  the  firemen,  the  same  irregular  habits 
and  the  same  sort  of  treatment  resulted  in  attracting  to  the 
deckhands'  work  much  the  same  class  of  men.  The  same  system 
of  election  resulted  in  some  instances  in  the  same  class  of  local 
agents,  although  this  evil  was  not  so  common  as  in  the  firemen's 
union  because  of  the  presence  in  the  former  case  of  the  better 
judgment  of  the  able  seamen. 

One  notable  difference  existed  between  the  firemen  and  the 
deckhands;  the  general  officers  of  the  seamen's  union  were  always 
more  competent,  more  responsible  and  more  able  and  willing  to 
discipline  their  members  who  violated  agreements.  This  is  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  the  seamen's  union  contained  both  able 
seamen  and  deckhands.  Since  the  latter  were  always  a  shifting 
lot  of  men,  the  union  was  always  controlled  by  the  former.  De- 
sertions by  deckhands  continued,  in  violation  of  agreements,  but 
they  were  relatively  less  frequent  than  before  the  operation  of 
the  agreements.  Violations  of  contracts  by  able  seamen  and 
cooks  were  much  less  common  than  by  firemen  and  deckhands, 
though  they  were  not  unknown.  Both  decreased  as  the  agree- 
ments continued  from  year  to  year. 

Any  provision  for  overtime  or  any  statement  in  the  seamen's 
agreements  which  interfered  in  any  way  with  the  discretion  of 
the  captain  and  mates  in  fixing  the  hours  of  labor  of  the  deck- 
hands and  able  seamen  was  a  source  of  continued  complaint  by 


82  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [232 

both  parties.  Even  after  the  owners  took  steps  to  effect  a  more 
friendly  relationship  with  the  captains  the  union  contract  re- 
mained in  the  way  of  the  free  exercise  of  full  control  over  the 
men  by  the  captains.  At  times  the  union  men  insisted  upon  a 
strict  observance  of  the  letter  of  the  agreement  when  an  obsevr- 
ance  of  its  spirit,  but  involving  a  few  minutes  actual  violation, 
would  have  saved  the  boats  hours  of  delay. 

Nor  were  violations  of  agreements  entirely  one-sided.  Indi- 
vidual captains  and  engineers  persisted  in  disregarding  the  terms 
of  the  agreements  with  the  men  under  them  until  called  to  ac- 
count by  their  employer  or  the  officials  of  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association;  while  occasionally  a  manager  of  a  fleet  ran  his 
boats  regardless  of  any  contract  betwen  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
cition  and  his  men.  For  example,  on  April  24,  1906,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  association  wrote  to  a  member  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee concerning  the  labor  policy  of  one  of  the  fleets  in  the 
association  during  the  preceding  year  as  follows:  "They  ab- 
solutely paid  no  attention  to  our  labor  contracts,  violated  them 
time  and  again,  and  kept  me  in  perpetual  hot  water  trying  to 
arrange  difficulties,  which  in  almost  every  case  we  had  not  the 
shadow  of  an  excuse  and  no  ground  to  defend  ourselves."  In 
1906  when  the  firemen  were  causing  so  much  trouble,  even  the 
president  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  advised  his  members 
to  violate  the  closed  union  shop  contract  with  the  firemen 's  union 
by  retaining  non-union  men  longer  than  one  trip  provided  for  in 
the  contract.55 

On  the  whole,  grievances  presented  to  the  union  officials  by  the 
president  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  received  prompt  at- 
tention. Attempts  were  made  to  locate  offenders  and  if  the  of- 
fense was  proved  punishment  usually  followed.  Numerous  union 
agents  were  removed  from  office  at  the  request  of  the  president 
of  the  association  for  collusion  with  the  men  on  the  boats  in  the 

65  In  a  letter  to  a  fleet  manager,  dated  August  21,  1906,  the  president  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  said:  "I  have  written  to  all  of  our  mem- 
bers who  have  made  complaints  and  who  have  had  to  put  on  non-union  men 
on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  Firemen's  Union  to  furnish  them,  not  to 
discharge  them  if  they  give  satisfaction,  to  pay  no  attention  whatever  to 
what  the  union  might  or  might  not  say  regarding  the  carrying  of  non-union 
men."  The  agreement  provided  that  in  case  the  union  "is  unable  to  fur- 
nish sufficient  men  when  called  for  by  the  engineer  or  his  representative,  he 
may  ship  non-union  men  to  fill  such  shortage  for  not  longer  than  the  ensuing 
round  trip." 


233]  DISRUPTION    OP    UNIONS  83 

violation  of  agreements.  Likewise,  grievances  presented  by 
union  officials  were  investigated  and  if  substantiated,  measures 
were  taken  to  remove  their  cause. 

From  the  beginning  the  agreements  declared  against  strikes 
for  any  cause  whatsoever.  Every  agreement  contained  an  arbi- 
tration clause  but  this  method  of  settling  disputes  was  seldom 
employed.  In  the  few  cases  in  which  arbitration  was  tried  a 
union  official,  a  member  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  —  us- 
ually an  official  —  and  a  third  man  selected  by  these  two  consti- 
tuted the  board.  The  executive  committee  of  the  association 
were  usually  more  adept  at  wording  agreements  than  were  the 
union  delegates  and  sometimes  the  agreement  did  not  grant  what 
the  union  thought  it  was  receiving.  If  an  arbitration  of  such 
clauses  was  requested  the  association  confined  evidence  to  the 
agreement  itself  and  would  not  permit  verbal  statements,  how- 
ever definite  or  undisputed,  to  be  presented  at  the  hearing.  In 
this  manner  the  arbitrators  must  make  a  literal  interpretation 
of  the  agreement,  regardless  of  the  justice  of  the  claims  of  the 
union  on  other  grounds.  Some  owners  looked  upon  the  loss  of 
an  arbitration  board  case  as  a  surrender  to  the  union  and  were 
willing  to  suppress  pertinent  evidence  or  use  any  other  means  to 
win.  One  such  manager  of  a  fleet,  in  writing  to  the  president  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  concerning  the  arbitration  of  a 
case  in  which  he  was  involved  said:  "We  want  to  win  and  I 
don't  care  how  much  money  it  costs  us,  if  by  spending  money  we 
can  win  this  arbitration. ' ' 56 

The  unions  distrusted  arbitration  and  seldom  asked  for  it. 
Even  before  agreements  were  entered  into  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union  went  on  record  against  state  or  national  arbitration.57 
Nevertheless  the  officials  of  the  union  have  always  shown  a  dis- 
position to  state  their  grievances  to  a  disinterested  third  party. 
This  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  has  always  objected  to.  Its 
officials  have  never  agreed  to  arbitration  by  outside  parties  and 
only  once  have  they  even  appeared  before  such  a  body  when 
arbitration  of  disputes  which  could  not  be  settled  otherwise  has 
been  offered. 

56  in  the  same  letter  the  manager  suggested  that  he  would  have  a  better 
chance  to  win  if  the  engineers  in  his  fleet  were  not  permitted  to  testify  at 
the  hearings  of  the  arbitration  board. 

si  Proceedings,  1902,  p.  21. 


CHAPTER  V 
OPEN  SHOP 

Since  the  vessel  owners  had  never  been  favorable  to  trade 
agreements  except  as  a  temporary  measure  to  avoid  the  uncer- 
tainties of  dictation  by  unions,  many  of  them  were  willing  to 
abolish  the  agreement  system  at  any  time.  Others,  led  by  Mr. 
Coulby,  were  unwilling  to  permit  any  break  in  the  truce  with 
labor  which  might  result  in  a  tie-up  of  the  boats  during  a  time 
when  the  steel  industry  might  be  injured  thereby.  In  1904  the 
making  of  agreements  could  not  be  interfered  with  because  the 
owners  did  not  have  the  support  of  the  captains  and  the  mates. 
With  a  constantly  increasing  demand  for  iron  ore  in  1905,  1906, 
and  1907,  it  was  better  to  continue  the  agreements  than  to  risk  a 
tie-up  of  the  boats.  When  it  became  evident  that  1908  would 
be  a  dull  season,  the  shippers  took  advantage  of  the  situation  to 
break  up  the  unions.  Having  fortified  themselves  by  piling  up 
sufficient  reserve  ore  to  last  well  into  the  season  of  1908  and  hav- 
ing fenced  the  docks  to  aid  in  the  protection  of  strike  breakers, 
they  had  little  to  fear  from  the  opposition  of  the  unions.1 

It  was  expected  that  if  a  strike  occurred  strike  breakers  could 
be  secured  at  Atlantic  ports  to  take  the  places  of  all  men  below 
the  licensed  officers.  No  trouble  was  anticipated  from  the  un- 
organized captains  and  mates.2  More  trouble  was  expected  from 
the  strong  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association.  For  sev- 
eral years  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  had  tried  to  induce 
its  engineers  to  sign  individual  contracts,  offering  them  more 
money  than  they  received  under  collective  bargaining.  One  of 
the  results  of  the  uncertainties  of  the  dull  season  of  1908  was  a 

i  On  May  1,  1908,  the  ore  on  Lake  Erie  docks  amounted  to  5,480,300  tons. 
This  compared  with  1,976,988  tons  in  1907  and  with  a  previous  high  of 
less  than  4,000,000  tons  in  1904.  Marine  Review,  May  14,  1908,  p.  21.  The 
total  reserve  of  ore  on  the  docks  and  in  furnace  yards  on  May  1,  1908  was 
approximately  19,000,000  tons.  Ibid.,  May  21,  1908,  p.  21. 

12  Ibid.,  Apr.  23,  1908,  p.  20. 

84 


235]  OPEN  SHOP  85 

meeting  of  the  officials  of  this  company  and  the  engineers  in  its 
employ.  At  this  meeting,  held  April  9,  1908,  individual  con- 
tracts were  again  tendered  and  most  of  them  were  signed. 

In  the  meantime  the  owners  were  holding  meetings  at  the 
various  ports  and  discussing  labor  questions.  The  owners  living 
at  Cleveland  met  on  March  26,  1908,  and  declared  for  open  shop. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  two  weeks 
later,  on  the  afternoon  of  April  9,  Mr.  Coulby  displayed  his  en- 
gineers' contracts  which  had  been  signed  that  morning  and  an- 
nounced his  readiness  to  cease  making  contracts  with  the  unions 
and  to  revert  to  the  policy  of  open  shop.3  On  roll-call  all  owners 
of  bulk  freighters  voted  for  open  shop.  The  only  members  of  the 
association  who  did  not  vote  for  the  motion  were  the  managers 
of  the  package  freight  lines.  Their  business  was  not  directly  af- 
fected by  the  slump  in  the  ore  business  and  they  did  not  wish  to 
incur  the  enmity  of  the  unions.  They  were  excused  from  voting. 

Previous  to  this  time  the  unions  had  asked  for  the  usual  con- 
ferences with  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  but  their  requests 
were  either  ignored  or  were  met  with  the  statement  that  the  asso- 
ciation was  not  yet  ready  to  meet  them.4  When  the  association 
voted  to  establish  open  shop,  April  9,  1908,  the  announcement 
was  given  to  the  press  and  such  published  statement  was  con- 
sidered sufficient  answer  to  the  unions'  requests  for  conferences. 
Contrary  to  the  expectations  of  the  association,  no  strikes  oc- 

s  Marine  Review,  Apr.  9,  1908,  p.  21.     These  contracts  read  as  follows: 

"Dear  Sir: — You  are  hereby  appointed  for  the  season  of  1908  Chief 

Engineer  of  our  Steamer ,  at  the  rate  of 

per  month  on  the  following  terms: 

"That  the  Company  reserves  the  right  to  dispense  with  your  services  at 
any  time  for  reasons  satisfactory  to  it.  That  you  faithfully  abide  by  and 
cooperate  in  carrying  out  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Company  in 
respect  to  all  matters  in  your  department. 

"As  we  have  decided  upon  the  policy  of  open  shop,  you  will  be  expected 
to,  and  by  your  acceptance  hereof,  will  agree  to  fully  cooperate  in  this  pol- 
icy and  in  keeping  off  from  the  ship  any  representatives  of  other  interests 
than  the  ship  and  owner,  as  far  as  your  department  is  concerned.  Also  if 
the  Company  decides  not  to  put  and  keep  the  Steamer  in  commission  you 
agree  to  serve,  if  requested,  as  Second  Engineer  on  any  Steamer  of  the 
Company  at  which  you  may  be  assigned  without,  however,  any  reduction  in 
the  rate  of  your  salary  above  stated."  Proceedings  Marine  Engineers' 
Benevolent  Association,  1909,  p.  466. 

4  Ibid.,  1909,  p.  464. 


86  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [236 

curred  during  1908.  The  unions  realized  that  during  a  dull 
season  many  members  would  be  tempted  to  desert  their  organiza- 
tion if  necessary  in  order  to  secure  one  of  the  comparatively  few 
available  jobs.  The  officials  accepted  open  shop  temporarily 
while  they  renewed  their  efforts  to  hold  their  members  together. 
The  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  on  the  other  hand,  started  in 
at  once  to  disrupt  the  unions.  On  May  6,  1908,  it  was  voted  that 
no  union  delegates  be  allowed  to  board  the  vessels  at  any  point.5 
Later  union  members  were  discriminated  against  in  seeking  em- 
ployment. Union  membership  books  were  first  demanded  of 
them  and  later  they  were  asked  to  sign  declarations  that  they 
were  not  members  of  any  labor  organization.6  About  the  only 
way  a  member  of  the  union  could  obtain  a  job  was  by  subterfuge 
and  deceit.  Union  officials  advised  their  members  to  sign  the 

s  The  manager  of  one  fleet  ordered  his  captains  as  follows :  ' '  Keep  the 
delegates  off  the  ship,  and  if  you  find  any  agitators  among  your  crew  or 
any  men  who  are  not  loyal  to  you  and  to  the  interests  which  you  represent, 
fire  them."  Marine  Review,  July  7,  1907,  p.  57. 

6  Two  kinds  of  such  declarations  were  used.     The  first  read  as  follows : 

' '  I  declare  upon  my  word  of  honor  that  I  apply  to  ship  free  to  act  for 
myself,  not  belonging  to  any  union,  and  in  case  of  a  strike,  sympathetic  or 
otherwise,  will  remain  on  board  and  perform  my  duties  in  a  proper  and  sat- 
isfactory manner ;  also  I  will  have  no  one  under  me,  except  as  above. ' ' 

The  second  declaration,  in  the  form  of  an  oath,  was  as  follows: 

" ,  being  first  duly  sworn,  deposes  and 

says  as  follows: 

' '  I  hereby  renounce  all  allegiance  to  any  and  all  labor  unions,  partic- 
ularly the  stewards',  seamen's,  firemen's,  and  oilers',  and  I  declare  it  to 
be  my  intention  not  to  join  either  as  long  as  I  follow  sailing  for  a  living. 

"I  am  therefore,  a  non-union  man,  and  if  I  get  a  position  on  a  lake 

vessel,  in  the  event  of  any  strike  of  any  description  involving  the 

union,  I  will  stay  by  the  ship  and  faithfully  perform  my  duties  as  such 
employee  despite  such  strikes  or  orders  of  any  unions. 


'  Subscribed  in  my  presence  and  sworn  before  me  this day  of 

,  19.. 


Notary  Public." 
Eeprinted  in  report  of  Committee  on  Merchant  Marine  and  Fisheries, 

House  of  Eepresentatives,  Feb.  17,  1910,  p.  53. 

The  president  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  denied  knowledge  of  the 

practice  of  his  shipping  masters  in  requiring  these  oaths  from  applicants 

for  jobs  and  stated  that  he  forced  them  to  discontinue  the  practice  as  soon 

as  he  learned  of  it.     Ibid.,  p.  24. 


237]  OPEN  SHOP  87 

contracts  offered  by  the  association,  retaining  their  union  mem- 
bership secretly  until  a  more  favorable  time  to  retaliate  ap- 
peared. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Ship  Masters'  Association,  Mr.  Coulby  ex- 
pressed views  on  "open  shop"  and  on  methods  to  be  employed 
in  enforcing  it  as  follows : 

What  we  are  trying  to  do  is  simply  to  get  back  to  the  old  conditions 
aboard  ship.  We  don 't  want  any  members  of  the  crew  to  see  if  it  is  in  the 
Bed  Book  before  they  do  it.  You  masters  have  got  to  go  on  the  picket 
line;  you've  got  to  win  this  fight  for  us.  For  my  own  company,  I  can  say 
that  we  are  going  to  win  if  it  takes  one  day,  one  month,  one  year  or  five 
years.  If  any  man  pulls  a  book  of  rules  on  you,  he  is  not  an  open  shop 
man.  Put  him  on  the  dock.  If  any  engineer,  first,  second  or  third,  wheels- 
man, watchman,  mate  declines  to  obey  orders,  put  him  on  the  dock.  We  will 
help  you  fill  their  places.  1 

At  its  meeting  July  2,  1908,  the  executive  committee  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  empowered  the  chief  counsel  "and 
such  other  assistance  as  in  his  judgment  may  be  found  neces- 
sary" to  proceed  to  England  to  investigate  the  methods  of  the 
Shipping  Federation  of  Great  Britain  in  dealing  with  labor  on 
the  boats.8  At  the  same  meeting  some  members  of  the  committee 
suggested  a  reduction  in  wages  but  Mr.  Coulby  prevented  such 
action.  The  chief  counsel  reported  to  the  board  of  directors  on 
October  28,  1908,  concerning  the  labor  policy  of  the  English 
federation  and  the  question  of  the  adoption  of  a  similar  policy 
on  the  Lakes  was  referred  to  the  executive  committee  with  power 
to  act.  The  plan,  to  be  known  as  the  Welfare  Plan,  was  an- 
nounced during  the  winter  of  1908-1909.9 

The  essentials  of  the  plan  are  as  follows :  1.  Assembly  rooms 
were  established  at  the  principal  ports  for  the  use  of  the  men 
who  carried  the  Welfare  certificate.  A  nominal  charge  of  $1.00 
per  year  was  charged  to  unlicensed  men  and  a  higher  rate  to 
licensed  officers.  2.  Certificates  were  obtained  in  the  following 
manner : 

Any  officer  or  seamen  applying  for  a  certificate  or  recommendation  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  must  declare  himself  willing  and  pledge 
himself  to  discharge  his  lawful  duties  towards  the  ship  on  which  employed, 

T  Marine  Review,  Apr.  16,  1908,  p.  24.  Other  representatives  of  vessel 
owners  spoke  at  the  same  meeting.  Some  of  the  masters  were  asked  to 
speak  but  all  declined. 

*  Ms.  proceedings,  July  2,  1908. 

«  Marine  Review,  Dec.  10,  1908,  p.  22-23. 


88  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [238 

regardless  of  membership  or  affiliation  on  his  own  part  or  that  of  any  other 
member  of  the  officers  and  crew  with  any  union  or  association  of  any  kind; 
and  these  certificates  once  given  must  be  revocable  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Association  upon  such  information  as  it  shall  have  received  and  requiring 
that  its  consideration  and  decision  of  the  matter  shall  be  exclusive  and  final. 

3.  Continuous  record  discharge  books  were  given  holders  of 
these  certificates.  In  addition  to  an  identification  description 
these  books  contained  a  continuous  service  record  of  the  holder, 
showing  the  vessels  upon  which  he  had  worked,  the  capacity  in 
which  he  worked,  the  time  of  entering  and  of  leaving  such  ser- 
vice, and  the  character  of  the  service.  Upon  accepting  a  posi- 
tion on  the  boat  the  holder  of  the  book  deposited  the  same  with 
the  captain.  If  the  character  of  the  service  was  either  good  or 
fair  an  entry  to  that  effect  was  made  in  the  book,  attested  by  the 
captain  (or  chief  engineer  in  the  case  of  men  in  his  department) 
and  the  book  was  returned  to  its  owner.  If  the  service  was, 
for  any  reason,  not  considered  either  good  or  fair,  the  book  was 
sent  by  the  chief  officer  to  the  executive  office  of  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association,  together  with  any  statement  which  the  officer 
might  see  fit  to  send.  4.  In  case  of  death  by  accident,  incident 
to  employment  on  board  ship  or  in  the  line  of  duty  to  any  ship, 
dependents  of  employees  who  carried  discharge  books  were  as- 
sured the  receipt  of  fixed  sums  from  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion, ranging  from  $75.00  for  ordinary  seamen  to  $500.00  for 
captains.10 

As  in  1908,  the  engineers,  including  assistant  engineers  in  the 
Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  were  required  to  sign  individual 
contracts  in  1909.  The  Marine  Enginers'  Benevolent  Associa- 
tion again  objected  to  these  individual  contracts  and  called  a 
strike  against  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.11  The  engineers 
induced  the  firemen  to  join  the  strike  and  by  May  1,  every  union 

™  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1908,  pp.  11-29.  Eeprinted 
in  pamphlet  form  by  the  association,  under  the  title  of  Welfare  Plan. 

11  The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  had  anticipated  this  action  by  the  en- 
gineers' union.  In  speaking  of  the  possibility  of  a  strike,  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  in  January,  Mr.  Coulby  had  said :  "If  the 
M.  E.  B.  A.  should  come  out  with  a  declaration  that  they  are  opposed  to 
the  open  shop  policy  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  which  I  understand 
they  are  now  contemplating,  I  will  say  to  you  right  now  that  there  won't 
be  an  M.  E.  B.  A.  man  on  our  ships. ' '  Marine  Review,  Jan.  12,  1909,  p.  23. 
The  association  endorsed  Mr.  Coulby 's  statement  and  adopted  it  as  the  pol- 
icy of  the  association. 


239]  OPEN  SHOP  89 

on  the  boats  was  on  strike.  The  other  unions  were  opposed  es- 
pecially to  the  discharge  book  system  which  constituted  a  very  ef- 
fectual blacklist  and  which  provided  the  discharged  employee  no 
appeal  from  the  decision  of  his  superior  officer  on  the  boat.  In- 
deed it  did  not  even  provide  that  he  should  know  the  reason  for 
his  failure  to  have  his  book  returned  to  him. 

On  May  11,  1909,  the  arbitration  boards  of  New  York,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  met  in  formal  joint 
conference  in  Chicago  in  the  hope  of  effecting  a  settlement  of  the 
strike.12  Representatives  of  the  union  appeared  before  this  con- 
ference and  stated  their  side  of  the  case.  The  officials  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  did  not  even  acknowledge  receipt  of 
the  formal  invitation  sent  them  by  this  conference  of  state  boards 
to  attend  and  state  their  side  of  the  controversy.  The  confer- 
ence then  adjourned  to  meet  in  Detroit  on  May  20,  and  another 
invitation  was  extended  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  as- 
sist in  the  settlement  of  the  strike.  This  invitation  was  declined, 
but  the  president  of  the  association  sent  to  the  conference  and 
simulaneously  gave  to  the  press  a  brief  statement  of  the  vessel 
owners'  views  on  the  principle  of  open  shop  and  concluded  by 
saying  that  such  principle  cannot  be  arbitrated. 

Having  no  powers  of  arbitration  nor  of  enforced  attendance 
at  its  hearings,  the  joint  conference  then  appealed  to  the  National 
Civic  Federation  for  cooperation  in  getting  the  parties  together. 
The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  did  not  give  up  its  opposition  to 
such  a  conference  but  through  the  efforts  of  the  president  of  the 
National  Civic  Federation  a  meeting  of  "prominent  vessel  own- 
ers," the  president  of  the  Federation,  and  the  members  of  the 
joint  conference  of  arbitration  boards  was  held  at  the  office  of 
the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  on  June  1,  1909.  Mr.  Coulby 
was  spokesman  for  the  vessel  owners  and  again  refused  to  arbi- 
trate the  principle  of  open  shop.  Following  this  conference  all 
efforts  by  disinterested  parties  to  settle  the  strike  were  discon- 
tinued and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and  the  unions  were 
left  to  fight  their  own  battles. 

The  season  of  1908  had  been,  as  anticipated,  unusually  dull 
and  ore  shipments  were  but  61  per  cent  as  large  as  in  1907. 

*2  A  complete  record  of  the  efforts  to  settle  the  strike  appear  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  New  YorTc  State  Department  of  Labor  for  June,  1909,  pp. 
132-158. 


90  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [240 

Many  of  the  men  were  unemployed  throughout  the  season  or 
were  given  work  but  a  part  of  the  time.  This  loss  of  wages, 
added  to  the  uncertainties  of  all  obtaining  work  during  1909  and 
the  threats  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  drive  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  Association  from  the 
Lakes  if  that  organization  opposed  the  open  shop  policy,  caused 
many  engineers  to  withdraw  from  their  union  rather  than  give 
up  their  contracts.  Enough  others  were  secured  from  Atlantic 
ports  or  elsewhere  to  start  the  boats.  Likewise,  either  through 
newspaper  advertisements  or  more  direct  methods  strike-breakers 
were  procured  to  take  the  places  of  other  striking  employees.  It 
has  been  claimed  by  some  of  the  union  leaders  that  strike-break- 
ers were  imported  directly  from  Europe  and  that  they  received 
pay  as  well  as  expenses  during  their  journey  to  the  Lakes. 

The  strike  lasted  three  years  but  the  vessel  owners  were  able  to 
secure  enough  strike-breakers  to  keep  their  boats  in  commission. 
Ore  traffic  was  affected  but  litle  except  in  the  greater  costs  due 
to  accidents  caused  by  inexperienced  men  on  the  boats.  The 
1907  shipments  were  surpassed  in  both  1909  and  1910.  Al- 
though the  strike  was  not  declared  off  until  1912  it  had  a  neg- 
ligible influence  after  1910.  By  the  end  of  that  season  the 
unions  were  completely  disrupted. 

Since  1908  wages,  hours,  and  the  conditions  of  work  on  the 
boats  have  been  determined  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association. 
Although  some  adjustments  of  the  grades  of  men  on  the  boats 
have  been  made  during  this  time,  involving  a  few  slight  changes 
in  wages,13  the  general  level  of  wages  has  been  changed  but 
little  until  recently.14  At  the  meeting  of  the  board  of  directors 
on  April  21,  1910,  it  was  recognized  that  if  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  was  then  dealing  with  the  unions,  the  wages  on  the 
boats  would  undoubtedly  be  forced  up  to  correspond  with  the 

!3  Annual  Eeport  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1910,  p.  19. 

!*  The  war  conditions  of  the  past  two  years  has  created  an  unprecedented 
demand  for  iron  ore.  Lake  traffic  has  enjoyed  unusual  prosperity  and  the 
demand  for  men  has  increased  accordingly.  In  1916  the  union  leaders  be- 
gan to  be  active  again  and  threatened  a  strike  against  the  Welfare  Plan  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.  By  granting  three  separate  increases  in 
wages  during  the  season,  trouble  was  averted.  Coast  Seamen's  Journal, 
Dec.  20,  1916,  p.  2.  Again  at  the  opening  of  the  season  of  1917  the  unions 
threatened  a  strike  (Ibid.,  May  2,  1917,  p.  1)  and  again  the  Lake  Carriers' 
Association  responded  by  granting  an  increase  in  wages.  Marine  Beview, 
June,  1917,  p.  202. 


241]                                                       OPEN    SHOP  01 

general  increases  in  wages  in  other  branches  of  industry.15     A 

voluntary  increase  was  discussed  and  decision  was  left  to  the 

executive  committe  with  the  understanding  that  any  increase  or 
adjustment  of  wages  should  not  exceed  5  per  cent  of  the  ship's 
payroll.  Accordingly  the  following  adjustments  were  made  to 
take  effect  June  1,  1910 : 16 

STEAM-BOATS 

Men  Affected                                                            1907  Scale  1910  Scale 

(last  year  of 
agreements) 

First  mates,  1st  class  steel  boats $125  $130 

First  mates,  2nd  class  steel  boats 108  112 

First  mates,  1st   class  wood  boats 108  112 

First  mates,  2nd  class  wood  boats 90  94 

Second  mates,  1st   class  steel   boats 86  90 

Second  mates,  2nd  class  steel   boats 75  78 

Second  mates,  1st   class  wood  boats 75  78 

Second  mates,  2nd  class  wood  boats 60  62.50 

Wheelsmen-watchmen    (new  classification) ....  55 

Deckhands  30  31.50 

Chief  engineers,  1st   class  steel   boats 150  to   175  155  to   175 

Chief  engineers,  2nd  class  steel  boats 125  to   150  140  to   155 

Chief  engineers,  1st    class  wood  boats 125  140 

Chief  engineers,  2nd  class  wood  boats 114  125 

Second  engineers,  1st   class  steel  boats 100  to   115  110  to   125 

Second  engineers,  2nd  class  steel  boats 90  to   100  100  to   110 

Second  engineers,  1st   class  wood  boats 90  100 

Second  engineers,  2nd  class  wood  boats 84  100 

Third  engineers 75  to   80  84 

Firemen   50  52.50 

Oilers 50  52.50 

Water  tenders 50  52 . 50 

Chief  cooks,  1st  class  boats']  90 

Chief  cooks,  2nd  class  boats  I. . .  .Not  classified       75  to   86  78 

Chief  cooks,  3rd  class  boats]  78 

Second  cooks  and  helpers 34  36 

Porters   28  30 

SAIL-BOATS  AND  CONSORTS 

First  mates 70  to    75  73 

Cooks   50  52 . 50 

Seamen 50  52 . 50 

Deckhands 30  31 . 50 

Engineers  on  tow  barges 70  73 

15  Ms.  proceedings,  Apr.  21,  1910. 

is  From  data  furnished  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion. 


92  WAGE  BARGAINING  ON   LAKES  [242 

No  other  changes  in  wages  were  made  for  eight  years  after  the 
contract  system  was  discontinued. 

Anticipating  the  passage  of  a  Federal  law  reducing  the  hours 
of  marine  firemen  from  twelve  to  eight  per  day,  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  in  1913  changed  their  system  of  working  their 
firemen  six  hours  on  and  six  hours  off  to  three  hours  on  and  six  off 
and  increased  the  number  of  firemen  accordingly.  At  the  same 
time  the  deckhands  were  relieved  from  the  work  of  coal-passing 
and  the  firemen  were  required  to  pass  the  coal  when  necessary. 
Mechanical  changes  have  been  made  during  recent  years  which 
have  reduced  the  amount  of  coal  to  be  passed.  Vessel  managers 
and  captains  have  been  instructed  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion to  grant  their  seamen  watch  and  watch  ' '  whenever  possible. ' ' 
The  captain  is  the  sole  judge  of  the  existence  of  such  a  possibility. 
The  hours  of  seamen  were  increased  somewhat  after  the  agree- 
ments were  discontinued,  although  they  are  less  than  they  were 
before  the  agreements  were  introduced.  Mechanical  devices  have 
changed  the  work  of  the  seamen  and  have  opened  the  way  for 
greater  dispatch  so  that  care  is  taken  to  save  minutes  where 
formerly  hours  were  wasted.  This  tends  to  increase  the  tension 
under  which  the  men  work  at  times. 

The  Lake  Carriers'  Association  has  followed  three  plans  in  its 
campaign  to  acquire  stability  of  tenure  on  the  boats.  In  the 
first  place  the  conditions  of  living  have  been  made  much  more 
attractive.  Since  1909  the  "Welfare  Committee  has  been  the  most 
active  committee  of  the  Association.  Continued  efforts  have 
been  made  in  the  search  for  improvements  which  would  increase 
the  attractiveness  of  life  on  the  boats  without  entailing  a  loss 
to  the  vessel  owners.  In  this  work  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Com- 
pany has  taken  the  lead  and  has  served  as  the  experiment  station 
for  the  entire  association.  It  has  been  recognized  that  such  im- 
provements can  be  introduced  and  maintained  only  by  education 
and  that  such  education  must  begin  with  those  in  authority  on 
the  boats.  As  a  rule,  vessel  captains,  and  especially  those  who 
have  served  on  sailing  vessels,  are  opposed  to  innovations. 

Since  1905  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company  has  met  its  cap- 
tains in  annual  sessions  and  since  1909  has  met  its  engineers  at 
about  the  same  time.  Other  fleets  have  since  adopted  the  same 
plan.  At  these  meetings  the  various  problems  connected  with 
the  operation  of  the  boats  are  discussed  and  changes,  mechanical 
or  otherwise,  are  explained.  Committees  of  captains  and  others 


243]  OPEN  SHOP  93 

of  engineers  have  a  place  in  studying  the  evils  to  be  corrected 
and  in  making  recommendations.  Every  proposed  change  has 
first  been  tried  out  by  a  few  of  the  boats.  If  it  has  been  success- 
ful here,  it  gradually  finds  favor  with  a  majority  of  the  pro- 
gressive officers.  The  declared  policy  of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship 
Company  is  that  it  will  not  issue  an  order  that  a  change  must 
become  operative  until  50  per  cent  of  the  captains  (or  engineers 
as  the  case  may  be)  are  favorable  to  it.  In  time  many  of  the 
changes  introduced  by  this  fleet  have  been  accepted  by  other 
vessel  owners  and  managers,  and  somewhat  later  have  become 
rules  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  to  be  followed  by  all 
vessels. 

In  this  manner  many  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
methods  of  providing  for  the  physical  comforts  of  the  men  on 
the  boats.  Having  educated  the  captain,  it  is  an  even  greater 
task  to  educate  the  unlicensed  men  to  take  advantage  of  some 
of  the  provisions  made  for  them,  such  as  sanitary  toilets  and 
bathing  facilities.  Much  attention  has  been  given  also  to  the 
quality  and  preparation  of  food  and  some  needed  improvements 
have  been  made  here.  Changes  have  been  made  in  the  methods 
of  paying  the  men  so  that  payment  of  even  deckhands  and  fire- 
men monthly  by  check  is  finding  increasing  favor  among  vessel 
owners  and  managers.  Men  are  encouraged  to  save  their  earn- 
ings and  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the  Cleveland  Trust 
Company  by  which  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  will  deposit 
whatever  portion  of  a  man 's  wages  he  desires  to  have  entered  on 
a  savings'  account.  Captains  have  been  instructed  to  use  every 
means  to  urge  their  men  to  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity. 
Such  accounts  were  first  opened  in  May,  1911.  The  early  pro- 
gress of  the  plan  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  covering  three 
years  of  its  operation :  " 

DEPOSITS  OF  VESSEL  EMPLOYEES  WITH  CLEVELAND  TRUST  COMPANY 

Dec.  31, 1911  Dec.  31, 1912  Dec.  31, 1913  July  31, 1914 


Total  withdrawals  to.  . 

58,393.84 

218.418.89 

415,417.33 

508,080.69 

Net  total  deposits  on.  . 

47,756.02 

113,577.55 

154,921.04 

153,614.30 

Accounts  opened  to.  ... 

844 

2,443 

3,919 

4,765 

Accounts  closed  to  .... 

329 

1,779 

2,945 

3,329 

Accounts  in  force  on.  . 

515 

644 

974 

1,427 

!7  Data  for  this  and  the  following  tables  furnished  by  the  secretary  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association. 


Average 
attendance 

Number 
club-rooms 

Average 
attendance 

102 

8 

322 

201 

11 

528 

150 

11 

423 

212 

11 

390 

255 

11 

528 

94  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [244 

Club-rooms  have  gradually  been  made  a  little  more  attractive 
and  night  schools  for  the  winter  months  have  been  introduced. 
The  club-rooms  are  maintained  from  December  1  to  March  31  by 
dues  paid  to  the  welfare  fund  by  the  members  of  the  welfare 
plan.  The  number  of  such  club-rooms  and  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance for  the  years,  from  1909  to  1914,  are  as  follows: 

AVERAGE  ATTENDANCE  AT  CLUB-ROOMS 

Licensed  men  Unlicensed  men 

Number 

Year  club-rooms 

1909-10  4 

1910-11  6 

1911-12  6 

1912-13  7 

1913-14  7 

During  the  winter  of  1913-14  night  schools  were  maintained 
as  follows,  at  a  total  cost  of  $823.66,  also  paid  from  the  contribu- 
tions to  the  welfare  fund: 

NIGHT  SCHOOLS,  1913-1914 

Total         Average 
attendance  attendance 

797  22 

843  23 

468  17 

730  14 

376  14 

Unlicensed  men  are  urged  to  prepare  themselves  for  license  ex- 
aminations and  schools  have  been  opened  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  them  needed  instruction. 

In  the  second  place,  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  question  of  discipline  on  the  boats.  Not  only  are  the  mer 
in  the  employ  of  the  members  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
admitted  to  membership  in  the  welfare  plan,  but  others  as  well 
are  enrolled  upon  application  so  that  there  is  normally  a  surplus 
of  men  from  which  vacancies  on  the  boats  are  filled.  The  num- 
ber required  to  man  the  boats  in  commission  during  the  three 


No. 

No. 

Place 

Length  of  term 

classes 

enrolled 

Buffalo 

Jan.  9,  1914,  to 

March  28,  1914 

36 

135 

Cleveland 

Jan.  9,  1914,  to 

March  28,  1914 

36 

158 

Detroit 

Jan.  9,  1914,  to 

March  28,  1914 

27 

71 

Duluth 

Jan.  9,  1914,  to 

March  28,  1914 

53 

49 

Marine  City 

Jan.  9,  1914,  to 

March    6,    1914 

27 

63 

245]  OPEN  SHOP  95 

years  from  1911  to  1913,  as  compared  with  the  number  of  men 
registered  in  the  welfare  plan  is  as  follows : 

Year  Number  to  man  boats  Number  registered 

1911  8,030  15,106 

1912  9,628  18,197 

1913  10,476  19,481 

During  these  three  years  the  percentage  of  men  actually  em- 
ployed who  were  members  of  the  welfare  plan  was  respectively 
93.54,  91.69,  and  84.91;  so  that  a  more  exact  statement  of  the 
information  in  the  above  table  would  read : 

No.  positions  to  be  filled  by  No.  registered  to  fill 

Year                             members  of  welfare  plan  these  positions 

1911  7,510  15,106 

1912  8,828  18,197 

1913  8,895  19,481 

It  must  be  recognized,  of  course,  that  there  is  always  more  or 
less  shifting  of  men  from  the  Lakes  to  other  sections  of  the  coun- 
try and  to  other  occupations.  As  a  partial  offset  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  men  from  the  Lakes,  there  are  relatively  few  changes 
in  licensed  officers  during  a  season  or  even  from  season  to  season. 
Hence  during  a  normal  year  there  is  never  a  very  great  surplus 
of  licensed  men  to  fill  the  vacancies  that  occur  in  their  positions. 
But  of  unlicensed  men  there  is  nearly  always  a  surplus.  For 
example  in  the  above  table,  while  1911  was  a  dull  season,  both 
1912  and  1913  were  good  years.  This  continuing  surplus  of  un- 
licensed men  makes  possible  a  selection  of  the  types  most  suit- 
able to  the  vessel  owners.  Preference  is  always  given  to  young 
men  of  sober  habits,  whose  loyalty  to  their  employers  reduces  to 
a  minimum  their  activity  as  union  agitators  or  as  trouble  makers 
of  any  kind.  The  discharge  book  gives  the  officials  of  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association  a  continuous  record  of  the  character  of  a 
man 's  work  and  of  his  attitude  toward  his  employers  as  reflected 
in  his  work.  In  addition,  the  individual  owners  and  the  asso- 
ciation, through  various  kinds  of  spy  systems,  keep  in  close 
touch  with  the  activities  of  the  unions  and  of  the  men  most 
prominent  in  them.  Hence  it  is  possible  at  any  time  to  remove 
men  who  make  trouble,  whether  in  the  cause  of  unionism  or 
otherwise,  and  replace  them  with  others  more  loyal  to  the  vessel 
owners. 


96  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [246 

Finally,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  has  made  conscious 
and  persistent  efforts  to  secure  for  service  on  the  boats  different 
types  of  men  than  formerly  worked  there.  As  firemen,  the 
former  irresponsible  floaters  have  been  replaced  by  southern 
Europeans,  especially  Greeks,  Poles,  Italians,  Austrians,  and 
Slavs.  These  men  have  been  found  to  be  willing  workers,  tem- 
perate in  their  habits,  oftentimes  without  a  home  or  domestic 
connections  other  than  those  afforded  on  the  boats,  and  for  the 
most  part  they  are  unacquainted  with  unionism  or  collective  ac- 
tion of  any  sort.  Most  of  them  are  frugal  in  their  habits  of  liv- 
ing, anxious  to  earn  and  anxious  to  save.  They  are  willing  to 
undertake  hard  tasks  for  what  to  them  is  a  high  wage  and  they 
obey  orders,  when  they  understand  them,  uncomplainingly.  It 
has  ceased  to  be  the  universal  custom  on  the  Lakes  to  expect  fire- 
men to  become  engineers  and  these  men  are  in  many  cases  ex- 
pected to  continue  to  do  the  work  of  firing  the  boilers.  Some 
effort  has  been  made  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  secure 
as  oilers  and  handymen  graduates  of  engineering  and  technical 
schools  from  whom  engineers  are  expected  to  be  developed. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  masters  and  mates  live  in  small 
towns  near  the  Lakes  or  in  rural  districts.  During  the  last  few 
years  these  men  have  been  expected  to  bring  their  deck  crews  and 
especially  their  deckhands  with  them  at  fitting  out  time  in  the 
spring.  These  farmer  youths  are  unacquainted  with  unionism, 
have  no  prejudices  against  their  employers  or  the  employing 
class,  are  regular  in  their  habits,  and  for  a  time  at  least  are  glad 
to  accept  without  question  the  change  of  work  and  the  relatively 
high  wages  offered  them.  Opportunities  for  advancement  are 
afforded  them  and  the  possibility  of  their  becoming  licensed  of- 
ficers within  a  relatively  short  time  holds  many  of  them  on  the 
boats  in  preference  to  a  return  to  the  farm  or  rural  village  where 
the  outlook  for  the  future  is  more  narrow.  Under  the  system 
employed  by  some  fleets,  again  led  by  the  Pittsburg  Steamship 
Company,  which  provides  that  promotions  shall  be  made  only 
from  the  ranks  of  employees  of  that  fleet,  continuous  service  on 
one  boat  is  considered  a  strong  recommendation  when  promotions 
are  to  be  made.  Southern  Europeans  are  also  used  as  deckhands 
on  some  boats. 

From  statistics  compiled  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  it 


247]  OPEN  SHOP  97 

appears  that  this  combination  of  the  substitution  of  southern 
Europeans  and  farmer  youth  for  the  older  types  of  firemen  and 
deckhands;  greater  care  for  and  attention  to  the  physical  com- 
forts of  the  men  on  the  boats;  encouragements  offered  for  con- 
tinuous service ;  and  rigid  discipline  and  the  dismissal  of  trouble 
makers  has  resulted  in  greater  stability  of  tenure  of  unlicensed 
employees.  For  example,  the  experience  table  for  able  seamen, 
including  wheelsmen,  watchmen,  firemen,  handymen,  oilers  and 
stewards,  for  the  years  from  1911  to  1913  indicates  that  these 
men  remain  on  the  boats  longer  than  formerly : 

CUMULATIVE  PERCENTAGE  EXPERIENCE  TABLE  OP  ABLE  SEAMEN 

Percent  of  total 

Years  of  experience  on  lake  boats  1911  1912  1913 

Under  1  year 4.59  1.99 

1  year  or  less 11.66  10.22  6.22 

2  years  or  less 28.33  20.01  13.39 

3  years  or  less 43.42  33.91  23.03 

4  years  or  less 53.58  45.84  34.76 

5  years  or  less 61.77  54.13  44.10 

10  years  or  less 81.78  78.79  73.16 

Total 100.00  100.00  100.00 

While  this  table  shows  that  an  increasing  percentage  of  the 
able  seamen  remain  on  the  Lakes,  it  does  not  prove  that  an  in- 
creasing percentage  of  them  remain  on  one  particular  boat  longer 
than  formerly.  However,  in  view  of  the  other  facts  previously 
stated  regarding  the  efforts  to  increase  the  stability  of  tenure 
of  this  class  of  labor,  such  inference  is  perhaps  permissable. 
The  age  table  for  able  seamen  indicates  the  same  thing  as  the 
experience  table : 

CUMULATIVE  PERCENTAGE  AGE  TABLE  OF  ABLE  SEAMEN 

Percent  of  total 

Years  of  age  1911  1912  1913 

20  or  less 9.48  7.24  5.37 

21  or  less 15.78  13.07  10.15 

22  or  less 23.79  19.75  16.39 

23  or  less 32.90  27.81  23.57 

24  or  less 40.27  35.57  30.73 

25  or  less 46.48  42.07  37.35 

30  or  less 69.50  66.59  63.10 

35  or  less 82.17  80.22  78.91 

Total    100.00  100.00  100.00 


98  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [248 

The  experience  and  age  tables  for  ordinary  seamen,  including 
deckhands,  second  cooks,  and  porters,  show  a  similar  progressive 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  men  who  remain  on  the  Lakes, 
though  relatively  smaller  changes  are  recorded  than  in  the  case 
of  the  able  seamen.  Since  the  able  seamen  are  recruited  from 
the  ordinary  seamen,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  more  changes 
would  occur  in  the  latter  class  of  men  than  in  the  former.  In 
considering  the  experience  table  of  ordinary  seamen  it  should  be 
noted  that  the  year  1911  was  a  dull  year  on  the  Lakes  so  that 
the  proportion  of  inexperienced  men  attracted  to  the  Lakes  and 
employed  by  the  vessel  owners  would  be  smaller  than  in  a  normal 
year.  Hence  the  percentage  34.59  is  hardly  representative  of 
the  general  trend. 

CUMULATIVE  PERCENTAGE  EXPERIENCE  TABLE  OF  ORDINARY  SEAMEN 


Years  of  experience  on  lake  boats  1911  1912  1913 

Under  1  year 34.59  49.93  49.84 

1  year  or  less 67.23  66.88  66.02 

2  years  or  less 83.12  78.83  75.88 

3  years  or  less 90.69  87.03  83.92 

4  years  or  less 93.80  91.14  88.95 

5  years  or  less 95.46  93.29  91.61 

10  years  or  less 98.47  97.71  97.11 

Total    100.00  100.00  100.00 

CUMULATIVE  PERCENTAGE  AGE  TABLE  OF  ORDINARY  SEAMEN 

Percent  of  total 

Years  of  age  1911  1912  1913 

19  or  less 23.31  21.30  18.47 

20  or  less 32.46  30.85  28.63 

21  or  less 45.36  42.52  40.92 

22  or  less 56.02  53.48  51.85 

23  or  less 64.22  61.11  59.67 

24  or  less 69.53  67.08  65.63 

25  or  less 73.64  71.87  70.29 

30  or  less 86.12  86.12  85.70 

35  or  less 92.40  92.31  92.55 

Total    100.00  100.00  100.00 

There  has  been  relatively  little  change  in  the  age  of  ordinary 
seamen  since  the  years  from  1905  to  1907  when  trade  agreements 
were  in  force,  except  that  the  older  men  are  gradually  being 
displaced  by  the  younger.  The  following  age  table  for  ordinary 


249]  OPEN  SHOP  99 

seamen  enrolled  in  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  during  the  years 
from  1905  to  1907  inclusive  is  compiled  from  data  furnished  by 
the  secretary  of  the  union: 

CUMULATIVE  PERCENTAGE  AGE  TABLE  OF  ORDINARY  SEAMEN  IN  THE  LAKE 
SEAMEN  's  UNION,  1905-1907 

Percent  of  total 


Years  of  age 
21  or  less  

1905 
41.33 

1906 
45.69 

1907 
45.28 

25  or  less  

66.84 

70.18 

69.05 

30  or  less  

80.33 

82.94 

82.73 

35  or  less  

88.05 

89.18 

89.50 

Total    . 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Since  there  is  no  record  of  total  shipments  of  men  per  year 
during  the  period  of  trade  agreements,  it  is  not  possible  to  state 
definitely  whether  or  not  there  has  been  a  gain  in  the  stability 
of  men  on  individual  boats  since  the  agreements  were  discon- 
tinued. Any  gain  that  has  been  made  is  relative  at  best  since 
there  is  still  considerable  shifting  of  men,  especially  among  fire- 
men and  deckhands.  The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of 
such  changes  in  each  grade  of  employment  on  the  boats  enrolled 
in  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  during  the  season  of  1913: 

STABILITY  OF  TENURE  ON  LAKE  BOATS,  1913 

Total  number  Average  Largest  number  re- 
Class  of  work  shipped  per  boat  quired  on  any  boat 

Deckhands    23,415  55                        6 

Firemen 10,891  26                        6 

Wheelsmen  and  watchmen. . . .           6,074  15                        4 

Second  cooks 1,482  4                        1 

Porters  2,473  6                        1 

Oilers 1,788  4                        2 

This  table  shows  that  an  average  of  more  than  nine  changes 
were  made  during  the  season  in  keeping  each  job  of  deckhand 
filled ; 18  that  an  average  of  more  than  four  changes  were  made 
in  keeping  each  job  of  fireman  filled,  in  spite  of  the  extensive  use 
of  southern  Europeans  in  this  work  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
during  the  season  the  hours  of  firemen  were  reduced  from  twelve 
to  eight  per  day:  and  so  on. 

is  In  reality  the  average  was  even  larger ;  for  not  all  of  the  boats  used 
six  deckhands  at  any  one  time.  The  same  is  true  of  the  other  averages 
quoted  in  this  table. 


100  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [250 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  even  though  considerable 
progress  has  been  made,  the  goal  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion in  its  dealings  with  labor  has  not  yet  been  reached. 

While  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  threats  of  the  union 
leaders  to  call  a  strike  against  the  Welfare  Plan  in  1916  and 
again  in  1917  helped  the  members  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation to  decide  upon  increases  in  the  wages  of  their  employees 
during  these  two  seasons,  there  is  little  evidence  to  indicate  that 
the  unions  are  strong  enough  to  overthrow  the  labor  policy  of 
the  association  at  the  present  time.  Indeed,  with  the  vessel 
owners  and  the  employees  organized  as  they  are  at  present,  it  is 
hard  to  foresee  the  time  when  union  recognition  and  trade  agree- 
ments will  again  be  granted  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association. 
Dominated  as  it  is  by  the  desires  of  interests  whose  policy  in 
dealing  with  labor  in  all  the  varied  industries  from  mine  to 
finished  product  is  to  refuse  to  deal  with  labor  in  its  collective 
capacity,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  may  be  expected  to  con- 
tinue to  shape  its  labor  policy  to  conform  to  that  of  the  dominat- 
ing interests.  And  unless  the  various  unions  whose  members 
man  lake  vessels  develop  strength  not  yet  apparent,  the  associa- 
tion may  be  expected  to  continue  to  be  successful  in  maintaining 
non-union  control  of  labor  engaged  in  lake  traffic. 

In  the  absence  of  trade  agreements,  there  are  apparently  three 
ways  in  which  progress  may  be  made  in  the  direction  of  improve- 
ment of  labor  conditions  on  the  boats :  First,  the  threat  of  the 
return  of  union  control  through  the  maintenance  of  strong 
unions;  second,  welfare  work  initiated  and  furthered  by  the 
vessel  owners;  and  third,  legislation. 

Unquestionably  the  maintenance  of  strong  unions  is  in  itself  a 
source  of  power  to  their  members,  even  though  such  unions  do 
not  receive  recognition.  But  where  labor  organizations  are 
frowned  upon  by  employers  it  is  no  easy  task  to  keep  men  in  the 
union,  especially  in  an  industry  where  there  is  normally  a  con- 
siderable surplus  of  labor  from  which  the  employers  may  draw 
workers  to  take  the  places  of  those  found  to  be  undesirable  for 
any  reason  by  their  superior  officers  on  the  boats.  It  is  only  in 
the  unusual,  rush  seasons,  when  the  demand  for  labor  increases 
so  rapidly  that  all  available  workers  are  employed  at  full  time, 
leaving  no  surplus  and  providing  no  new  source  of  supply,  that 


251]  OPEN   SHOP  101 

the  threats  of  the  partially  representative  unions  become  effec- 
tive. For  eight  years  after  trade  agreements  were  discontinued 
on  the  Lakes,  the  demands  and  the  threats  of  the  unions  were 
successfully  ignored  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.  It  was 
not  until  the  unprecedented  demand  for  labor  to  help  move  the 
ore  required  in  war  times  had  depleted  the  surplus  of  unemployed 
men  seeking  employment  on  the  boats  that  the  association  saw 
fit  to  give  heed  to  the  threats  of  the  union  leaders.  And  even 
now  there  is  no  assurance  that  labor  will  retain  the  wage  gains 
of  these  two  seasons  or  any  part  of  them  after  the  existing  period 
of  labor  shortage  has  passed. 

Though  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  persistently  refuses  to 
deal  with  the  representatives  of  organized  labor,  the  vessel  own- 
ers have  not  closed  their  eyes  to  the  necessity  for  giving  attention 
to  the  comfort  and  well-being  of  their  employees.  Both  as  in- 
dividuals and  as  an  association  they  have  made  improvements  in 
the  living  conditions  of  the  men  on  the  boats.  Measured  by  the 
conditions  which  ante-dated  the  agreements,  the  welfare  commit- 
tee of  the  Lake  Carriers '  Association  and  many  of  the  individual 
owners  have  done  much  constructive  work  in  making  life  on  the 
boats  more  attractive.  Of  course  all  expenditures  that  have  been 
made  in  the  name  of  welfare  work  have  paid  satisfactory  returns 
to  the  vessel  owners  and  it  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  profits 
will  not  be  sacrificed  in  whatever  extension  is  made  in  welfare 
work  in  the  future. 

Several  laws  have  been  passed  which  affect  directly  the  work  of 
men  employed  upon  lake  boats.  These  laws,  in  so  far  as  they  de- 
fine the  conditions  of  labor  which  must  be  observed  upon  the  lake 
boats,  constitute,  of  course,  a  substitute  for  trade  agreements. 
But  it  can  hardly  be  expected  that  the  laborers  on  lake  vessels 
will  ever  attain  sufficient  political  importance  to  induce  Congress 
to  consider  all  of  their  grievances.  Furthermore,  many  of  these 
grievances  are  not  peculiar  to  lake  traffic  but  are  common  to 
other  industries  as  well.  The  experience  of  the  unions  on  the 
lake  boats  in  their  defeat  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  is 
but  one  of  the  many  instances  where  the  unaided  forces  of  or- 
ganized labor  have  proved  impotent  before  the  onslaughts  of  or- 
ganized capital.  It  would  seem  that  if  labor  is  to  regain  its 
bargaining  power  in  such  industries,  it  must  enlist  the  support 


102  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [252 

of  outside  forces,  possibly  the  government  through  legislation, 
which  will  strengthen  unionism  in  its  struggles  with  organized 
capital.19  To  accomplish  this  end  means  a  closer  unity  of  labor 
interests  than  obtains  at  present  and  a  comprehensive  program 
of  legislation  which  has  not  yet  been  effectively  worked  out. 


19  Since  these  lines  were  written  a  press  announcement  indicates  that 
the  Federal  government  has  become  a  party  to  the  labor  contract  on  the 
lake  boats.  The  Chicago  Tribune  of  November  1  contains  the  following 
statement : 

Seamen  on  the  Great  Lakes  will  rejoice  today  to  learn  that  by  agree- 
ment the  so-called  discharge  book  .  .  .  is  to  be  abolished.  In  its  place 
will  spring  up  a  discharge  certificate  system,  operated  under  government 
supervision,  which  will  guard  against  incompetency. 

The  announcement  comes  at  the  close  of  an  investigation,  started  early 
in  the  fall  when  a  far  reaching  strike  on  the  Great  Lakes  was  imminent. 

The  Tribune  statement  quotes  the  decision  of  the  shipping  board  as 
follows : 

The  shipping  board  has  received  the  report  of  the  investigation  into  the 
Welfare  Plan  and  discharge  book  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  in 
operation  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  matter  of  overtime  work  and  pay. 
Upon  all  the  evidence  received  this  board  has  decided  that  the  discharge 
book  is  undesirable  and  should  be  abolished. 

The  matter  of  overtime  work  and  pay  is  under  further  consideration. 
The  board  desires  if  possible  to  work  out  and  put  into  effect  a  plan  for 
taking  up  and  promptly  adjusting  any  grievances  as  they  may  arise. 


APPENDIX  A 

NOTE 

The  three  appendices  constitute  three  short  studies  of  wage  bargaining 
in  industries  very  closely  related  to  the  operation  of  vessels  owned  by  the 
members  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association.  All  three  studies  were  made 
while  the  writer  was  in  the  employ  of  the  United  States  Commission  on  In- 
dustrial Relations  and  none  of  them  have  been  carried  beyond  the  season 
of  1914. 

WAGE  BARGAINING  ON  LAKE  ERIE  DOCKS 

The  first  bulk  ore  brought  down  the  Lakes  was  shoveled  from 
the  hold  of  the  vessel  to  an  intermediate  staging  and  from  there 
to  the  deck.1  It  was  then  conveyed  in  wheelbarrows  over  a 
bridge  to  the  dock.  The  first  improvement  upon  this  method  of 
handling  the  ore  was  the  use  of  a  whiskey  barrel  sawed  in  two, 
with  knotted  ropes  passed  through  eye  holes  on  each  side.  This 
formed  a  bucket  into  which  the  ore  was  shoveled.  A  block  and 
fall  fastened  to  one  of  the  spars  of  the  vessel  and  a  horse  at  the 
end  of  the  rope  was  the  machine  that  hoisted  the  bucket  of  ore 
from  the  hold  to  the  deck.  The  wheelbarrows  were  still  used  to 
transport  the  ore  to  the  dock.2 

In  1867  a  dock  engine  replaced  the  horse  after  its  superiority 
had  been  demonstrated  beyond  question  to  the  skeptical  vessel 
captains.3  The  next  decade  brought  the  swinging  crane  to  con- 
vey the  buckets  of  ore  directly  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel  to  the 
dock  or  cars.4  In  the  following  decade  the  Brown  hoisting  and 
conveying  machine  came  into  general  use.  It  did  away  with  the 
necessity  for  wheeling  the  ore  or  swinging  it  by  cranes,  but  it 
made  very  little  change  in  the  method  of  handling  it  in  the  hold 

1  Marine  Beview,  June  15,  1905,  p.  21. 

2  Marine  Record,  Nov.  10,  1898,  p.  9. 

3  Marine  Eeview,  Dec.  1,  1904,  p.  18. 
*  Ibid.,  Sept.  20,  1906,  p.  31. 

103 


104  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [254 

of  the  vessel  since  the  Brown  buckets  had  but  one  ton  capacity 
and  were  filled  by  the  ore  shovelers.5 

In  1901  the  first  clam-shell  grab  bucket  was  erected.  This  had 
a  capacity  of  ten  tons  and  was  expected  to  remove  90  per  cent  of 
the  ore  without  the  aid  of  shovelers.6  By  improving  upon  the 
principle  of  the  grab  bucket  and  by  changing  the  construction  of 
the  boats  so  as  to  bring  the  maximum  amount  of  ore  within  the 
reach  of  these  automatic  unloaders,  it  is  now  possible  to  remove 
97  per  cent  of  the  vessel's  cargo  without  the  aid  of  shovelers. 
Modern  grab  buckets  have  a  reach  of  twenty-one  feet  and  a 
capacity  of  twenty  tons. 

It  has  been  a  common  saying  on  the  ore  docks  that  no  device 
for  unloading  ore  has  ever  been  permitted  to  wear  out.  It  has 
always  been  replaced  by  more  modern  machinery  before  it 
reached  that  stage.  Each  new  invention  reduced  the  cost  of 
handling  the  ore.  Even  the  change  from  the  shovel-bucket- 
wheelbarrow  method  to  the  Brown  hoist  reduced  the  cost  from 
$.50  per  ton  to  $.18  per  ton.7  Modifications  followed  each  other 
so  closely  that  dock  managers  protested  against  too  frequent 
changes  which  would  give  one  manager  an  advantage  over  his 
rivals.8  Another  result  of  the  effects  of  such  competition  was 
the  formation  of  price  agreements  or  understanding  almost  as 
soon  as  ore  handling  became  a  large  enterprise  on  the  Lakes. 

By  the  early  nineties  the  ore  and  coal  handlers  had  organized 
unions  and  had  begun  to  try  to  dictate  terms  of  employment  to 
the  dock  managers  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  seamen  tried 
to  dictate  terms  to  the  vessel  owners.  Gradually  these  unions 
joined  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association  until  by 
1899  almost  every  man  working  on  the  Lake  Erie  docks  was  a 
member  of  that  organization.  The  dock  managers  fought  the 
unions  up  to  this  time,  but  the  boom  in  lake  traffic  and  especially 
in  ore  shipments  created  such  a  demand  for  men  in  this  and  the 
following  year  as  to  give  the  unions  an  advantage  over  their  em- 
ployers. The  unions  used  this  advantage  and  called  frequent 
strikes  for  advances  in  wages.  Recognizing  the  existence  of  price 
agreements,  the  unions  played  one  port  against  another  and  ef- 

s  The  first  Brown  hoists  were  useed  in  1881.  Marine  Eeview,  May  14, 
1903,  p.  26. 

«  Marine  Eecord,  Nov.  29,  1900,  p.  11. 
7  Marine  Eeview,  May  14,  1908,  p.  13. 
s  Ibid.,  Sept.  20,  1906,  p.  30. 


255]  LAKE   ERIE   DOCKS  105 

fected  general  increases  by  taking  advantage  of  local  conditions.9 
There  was  always  uncertainty  about  the  wages  necessary  to  ob- 
tain sufficient  men  and  even  about  the  ability  to  obtain  men  at 
any  wage  during  busy  seasons. 

Ore  handling  was  difficult  work,  involving  long  hours.  It  was 
also  casual  work  since  the  boats  arrived  at  the  docks  irregularly. 
The  hard  work,  long  hours  and  irregularity  of  work  attracted  a 
shifting  class  of  laborers  among  whom  drunkenness  was  common. 
The  predominance  of  unskilled  laborers  placed  the  control  of  the 
unions  in  the  hands  of  irresponsible  men.  Only  the  minority  of 
skilled  men,  the  hoisters  and  engineers,  were  permanent  workers 
and  even  these  were  held  at  their  machines  by  the  bonus  system 
for  regular  work. 

In  order  to  systemize  their  work  and  if  possible  to  place  re- 
sponsibility for  the  regular  attendance  of  their  men  when  they 
were  needed,  the  dock  managers  granted  the  request  of  the  union 
for  trade  agreements  in  March,  1900.10  The  employers  had  no 
permanent  organization  but  met  each  year  as  individuals  to  fix 
prices,  discuss  labor  questions,  legislation,  and  any  other  matters 
of  common  interest.  Each  man  financed  his  own  trip  to  the 
annual  meeting  at  Cleveland  and  the  association  had  no  treasury. 
Agreements  were  signed  by  all  who  expected  to  abide  by  their 
terms  and  violations  by  managers  were  expected  to  be  punished 
by  the  union.  In  the  same  manner  the  union  was  expected  to 
force  any  hesitant  manager  to  sign  the  agreement  which  had  been 
accepted  by  his  competitors. 

The  agreements  signed  in  March,  1900,  granted  to  the  Inter- 
national Longshoremen 's  Association  closed  union  shop  to  govern 
the  unloading  of  ore  for  the  season.  Although  the  conference 
was  brought  about  by  the  general  officers,  representatives  of  the 
local  unions  were  present.  Some  of  the  locals  objected  to  any 
conference  with  the  employers,  as  a  display  of  weakness,  and 
desired  to  continue  the  system  of  taking  advantage  of  the  em- 
ployers whenever  a  favorable  opportunity  was  offered.  The  main 
issues  covered  in  the  agreement  were  as  follows :  u  For  the  first 
time  the  hours  of  ore  unloaders  were  fixed  for  the  season.  Prev- 
ious to  this  time  the  working  day  for  the  rush  season  was  the 

9  Marine  Record,  Jan.  27,  1898,  p.  5. 
no  Ibid.,  Mar.  15,  1900,  p.  6. 
11  From  copy  of  agreement. 


106  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [256 

limit  of  the  physical  endurance  of  the  men  and  sometimes  reached 
as  high  as  forty-two  hours  at  one  shift.  Under  the  agreement, 
hours  were  fixed  at  twelve  per  day  with  arrangement  for  a 
limited  amount  of  overtime  when  necessary.  There  was  to  be 
no  work  on  specified  holidays  or  on  Sundays  unless  the  vessel 
was  in  a  wrecked  condition.  Wages  were  fixed  in  the  agreement 
according  to  the  class  of  work.  Both  time  rates  and  piece  rates 
were  used.  The  selection  of  gangs  to  unload  the  boats  was  to 
be  by  rotation,  to  avoid  the  practice  of  favoritism  which  had  pre- 
vailed formerly.  Gang  bosses  were  to  be  members  of  the  union 
to  be  selected  jointly  by  the  dock  superintendent  and  the  men 
interested.  Hoisters  and  engineers  were  given  a  monthly  wage. 
Intoxication  or  the  bringing  of  liquor  to  the  docks  was  pro- 
hibited. All  grievances  were  to  be  settled  by  arbitration,  with 
no  cessations  of  work  in  the  meantime. 

During  1900  and  1901  two  agreements  were  made  for  each 
year;  one  to  cover  the  regular  navigation  season,  May  1  to  De- 
cember 1,  and  the  other  to  cover  the  winter  season  from  Decem- 
ber 1  to  May  1.  Beginning  in  1902  agreements  to  cover  both 
seasons  were  granted  annually  until  1906.  Winter  hours  dur- 
ing 1900  and  1901  were  ten  per  day.  In  1902  the  hours  for  the 
navigation  season  were  reduced  to  eleven,12  while  the  winter  hours 
remained  at  ten.  Slight  increases  in  wages  were  granted  from 
time  to  time  and  minor  changes  were  made  in  the  agreements. 
Although  occasional  unauthorized  strikes  were  called  by  local 
unions,  the  general  officers  succeeded  in  making  conditions  of 
work  on  the  docks  much  more  stable  than  formerly  and  much 
more  satisfactory  to  the  dock  managers. 

In  1906  no  real  differences  existed  between  the  dock  managers 
and  the  union  and  it  was  not  anticipated  that  any  trouble  would 
be  had  in  reaching  an  agreement.  Then  the  union  refused  the 
dock  managers  a  conference  pending  its  attempt  to  force  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  recognize  the  union  of  mates.13 
This  involved  a  general  nine  days'  strike  when  the  agreement  for 
the  winter  of  1905-1906  expired  on  April  30,  1906.  On  May 

!2  This  was  the  first  season  in  the  half  century  that  ore  handlers  had 
been  employed  that  their  regular  hours  of  work  were  less  than  twelve  per 
day.  The  reduction  affected  about  20,000  men.  Marine  Eecord,  Apr.  3, 
1902,  p.  7. 

is  Cf.  supra,  p.  73. 


257]  LAKE   ERIE   DOCKS  107 

9,  1906,  the  strike  was  declared  off  .and  two  days  later  an  agree- 
ment was  reached.  At  the  request  of  the  dock  managers  its  term 
was  extended  from  one  to  two  years.  The  only  material  change 
from  the  former  agreement  was  a  further  reduction  of  the  day 
to  ten  hours.14 

Although  the  first  automatic  grab  bucket  was  constructed  in 
1901,  it  took  considerable  time  for  a  complete  change  to  be  made 
on  all  the  docks.  Whenever  such  an  unloader  was  installed  a 
large  number  of  ore  shovelers  were  thrown  out  of  employment  in 
spite  of  the  rapidly  increasing  receipts  of  ore  at  the  Lake  Erie 
docks.  At  the  same  time  the  demand  for  skilled  workers,  men 
capable  of  operating  the  machines,  increased.  By  1908  the  total 
number  of  men  employed  on  the  docks  had  been  gradually  re- 
duced and  the  character  of  the  work  of  unloading  the  ore  had 
changed  from  hand  work  to  machine  work.  A  few  shovelers 
were  still  used  to  clean  up  the  3  to  5  per  cent  of  the  ore  which 
the  automatic  grab  buckets  could  not  reach  unaided;  but  the 
number  required  for  this  work  was  but  a  fraction  of  the  number 
formerly  required  to  fill  the  buckets  under  the  old  system  of  un- 
loading the  vessels.  At  the  same  time  the  men  accustomed  to 
shovel  the  ore  were  not  usually  the  kind  of  men  required  to  oper- 
ate machinery. 

The  loss  of  union  strength  was  directly  proportional  to  the 
construction  of  automatic  unloaders  and  was  especially  rapid  in 
1906  and  1907.  Nevertheless  the  union  expected  a  renewal  of 
the  two  year  agreement  signed  in  1906  and  early  in  1908  asked 
for  a  conference  with  the  dock  managers.  Letters  to  that  effect 
were  either  ignored  or  were  answered  evasively  until  open  shop 
was  declared  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  on  April  9, 
1908.15  "Within  a  few  days  the  dock  managers  also  declared  open 
shop  and  refused  to  discuss  the  subject  with  the  union  officials. 
The  declaration  read  as  follows : 16 

The  experience  of  the  dock  managers  and  dock  superintendents  for  the 
past  few  years  has  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  operating  the  docks  on  the 
open  shop  principle  in  order  to  give  them  the  proper  control  of  their  docks, 

i*  The  union  waived  a  demand  for  an  increase  in  wages  in  order  to  secure 
the  ten  hour  day.  Marine  Review,  May  17,  1906,  p.  22. 

!5  Ms.  records  of  International  Longshoremen 's  Association,  passim. 
is  Marine  Review,  Apr.  23,  1908,  pp.  20-21. 


108  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [258 

which  is  required  for  the  equal  good  of  the  owners,  their  employes,  the  ves- 
sel interests  and  all  concerned;  therefore,  be  it 

Eesolved,  First  that  the  dock  managers  of  Lake  Erie  do  now  declare  that 
the  open  shop  principle  be  adopted,  and  adhered  to  on  our  docks. 

Second,  that  the  dock  managers  stand  for  the  open  sliop  principle. 

Third,  that  it  is  the  intent  of  the  dock  managers  to  pay  a  fair  and  just 
rate  of  wages,  to  insist  on  such  rules  and  regulations  as  shall  conduce  to  the 
well  being  of  their  employes  and  shall  enforce  a  system  of  discipline  requir- 
ing faithful  and  diligent  performance  of  duty. 

Fourth,  and  at  this  meeting,  representing  all  the  docks  on  Lake  Erie,  it 
is  voted  to  adhere  to  and  observe  this  action. 

The  relationship  between  the  vessel  owners  and  the  dock  man- 
agers is  a  very  intimate  one  so  that  the  same  motives  actuated 
both  in  their  labor  policies.  For  example,  a  prominent  corpora- 
tion in  Cleveland  styles  itself  a  selling  agency.  It  buys  ore 
from  mines,  manages  boats  and  docks,  and  sells  ore  to  furnaces. 
Its  members  are  stockholders  in  every  process  of  iron  and  steel 
production  and  in  every  transportation  agency  from  the  mining 
of  the  ore  to  the  selling  of  the  finished  product.  Hence  it  was 
natural  that  a  man  who  believed  in  non-unionism  as  a  vessel 
owner  would  also  believe  in  non-unionism  as  a  dock  manager. 

The  dock  managers  continued  the  same  wages  and  conditions 
of  work  as  under  the  agreements.  Upon  a  referendum  vote  the 
union  decided  not  to  strike  against  the  declaration  of  open  shop, 
but  to  await  a  more  favorable  opportunity  to  protest  against  this 
action  of  the  dock  managers.  In  some  cases  at  least  the  em- 
ployers forced  the  union  members  to  sign  individual  contracts 
declaring  their  withdrawal  from  their  organization.17  Also  by 
refusing  to  receive  boats  at  certain  docks  until  the  union  mem- 
bers had  surrendered  their  charters,  the  employers  succeeded  in 
driving  all  local  unions  from  the  docks.18  The  enrollment  of 
4,500  members  on  the  ore  and  coal  docks  in  1907  was  reduced  to 
the  negligible  number  of  less  than  300  in  1908,  while  25  of  the 
30  locals  had  surrendered  their  charters  by  the  later  date.  The 
others  had  a  nominal  existence  for  a  short  time  longer. 

Since  the  breakup  of  the  agreements,  the  dock  managers  have 
adopted  the  system  followed  by  some  of  the  vessel  owners  of 
filling  positions  by  promotion  from  their  own  employees  when- 
ever possible.  In  this  manner  they  hope  to  encourage  faithful- 

"  Proceedings  International  Longshoremen's  Association,  1908,  p.  17. 
is  The  fencing  of  the  docks  aided  materially  also.     Cf.  supra,  p.  76. 


259]  LAKE   ERIE   DOCKS  109 

ness  in  service  and  loyalty  to  employers.  More  rigid  rules  of 
discipline  have  been  introduced  and  efforts  have  been  made  to 
secure  a  more  desirable  class  of  men.  Since  the  agreements  have 
been  discontinued  the  shovelers  have  been  mostly  southern  Euro- 
peans while  young  Americans  were  secured  wherever  possible  to 
operate  the  machines. 


APPENDIX  B 
GRAIN  HANDLERS'  AGREEMENTS 

As  soon  as  the  rich  farm  lands  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie 
began  to  produce  a  surplus  of  grain,  shipments  by  lake  to  Buf- 
falo and  thence  to  the  eastern  markets  began.  Somewhat  later, 
1831,  the  first  grain  shipments  from  Lake  Michigan,  consisting 
of  a  few  bags  of  wheat,  were  received  at  Buffalo.19  By  1840  the 
grain  trade  at  Buffalo  had  become  established.  Upon  arrival  at 
Buffalo  the  grain  was  carried  up  ladders  on  the  backs  of  the 
grain  handlers  or  was  hoisted  to  the  deck  in  barrels  and  carried 
in  baskets  to  the  warehouses,  or  to  the  floating  warehouses  used 
to  transport  grain  from  the  lake  vessels  to  the  canal  boats.20  A 
horse  power  elevator  had  been  tried  without  success  and  the 
warehouse  operators  continued  to  believe  "Irishmen's  backs  are 
the  cheapest  elevators."  In  this  manner  about  2,000  bushels 
could  be  taken  from  a  boat  in  one  day.  The  grain  was  weighed 
in  a  fifteen  bushel  hopper  suspended  from  a  steel-yard  beam 
placed  over  the  hatch.21 

The  rapidly  increasing  receipts  of  grain  gave  greater  impetus 
to  efforts  to  perfect  a  power  elevator  and  in  1842  the  first  success- 
ful elevator  was  constructed.  It  applied  steam  power  to  an  end- 
less belt  set  with  two-quart  buckets  twenty-eight  inches  apart.22 
This  elevator  had*  but  one  leg  and  had  a  capacity  of  55,000 
bushels  daily.  Three  years  later  a  second  leg  was  added  and  the 
capacity  was  doubled.  The  grain  handlers  were  still  needed  to 
place  the  grain  within  reach  of  the  elevator  legs.  In  the  sixties 
the  steam  shovel  came  into  use.23  This  supplemented  the  work 
of  the  elevator  legs  and  took  the  place  of  a  part  of  the  shovelers. 
"With  the  continually  increasing  shipments  of  grain,  the  receipts 

is  Marine  Seview,  Feb.  22,  1906,  p.  15. 

20  Ibid.,  June  20,  1907,  p.  21. 

21  Ibid.,  May  30,  1907,  p.  25. 

22  Ibid.,  May  30,  1907,  p.  22. 

23  Marine  Record,  July  27,  1899,  p.  7. 

110 


261]  GRAIN    HANDLERS  111 

having  exceeded  50,000,000  bushels  in  1866,  the  number  of  grain 
handlers  remained  about  the  same  since  they  were  needed  to 
clean  up  and  to  help  the  steam  shovels.  Since  the  introduction 
of  the  steam  shovels,  but  little  change  has  been  made  in  the 
methods  of  handling  grain  at  Buffalo.  Suction  elevators  have 
been  tried  without  success.  Relatively,  but  little  change  has 
been  made  in  the  number  of  grain  handlers  required. 

The  amount  paid  by  the  vessel  owner  for  unloading  the  grain 
has  always  been  a  piece  price.  In  1865  it  was  $4.00  per  thousand 
bushels  for  sail-boats  and  $4.50  for  steam-boats.24  Of  this  amount 
one-half  was  paid  to  the  owners  of  the  steam  shovels  and  the 
remainder  was  paid  to  the  grain  handlers.  Shoveling  grain  is, 
of  course,  one  of  the  simplest  of  occupations  and  requires  a 
minimum  of  skill.  Since  the  arrival  of  boats  was  irregular, 
steady  work  was  out  of  the  question.  On  any  particular  day  all 
elevators  might  have  vessels  to  unload  and  hence  have  a  demand 
for  shovelers ;  or  none  of  them  might  need  shovelers  for  days  at  a 
time. 

Wages  were  relatively  high  for  the  time  worked.  The  men 
who  followed  the  work  of  grain  shoveling  were  a  shifting  mix- 
ture of  old  men,  tramps,  saloon  loafers  who  were  driven  to  a 
day's  work  occasionally,  and  men  who  tried  to  make  enough  at 
the  work  to  keep  themselves  and  their  families.  While  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of  expected  boats  or  during  an  off  day  the  meet- 
ing places  of  these  men  were  the  numerous  saloons  which  studded 
the  docks.  An  elevator  operator  who  needed  men  soon  acquired 
the  habit  of  sending  to  these  saloons  for  them. 

From  this  set  of  circumstances  developed  the  saloon-boss  sys- 
tem of  control  over  the  grain  handlers.25  Each  elevator  operator 
came  to  patronize  one  particular  saloon  because  he  could  depend 
upon  its  keeper  to  furnish  needed  men.  The  saloon  keeper  next 
assumed  the  responsibility  of  supplying  the  men  at  a  price  agreed 
upon  by  himself  and  the  elevator  operator.  The  saloon  keeper  then 
paid  the  shovelers  at  his  saloon.  This  gave  him  several  sources 
of  profit:  First  he  received  a  neat  commission  from  the  eleva- 
tor operator  for  furnishing  the  men :  second,  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  wages  paid  out  by  him  were  turned  back  in  payment 
for  drink ;  third,  many  of  the  men  were  floating  laborers  and  were 

24  Marine  Eecord,  July  27,  1899,  p.  8. 
as  Hid.,  May  11,  1899,  p.  7. 


112  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [262 

forced  to  live  in  boarding-houses  in  which  the  saloon  bosses  had 
an  interest;  finally,  since  each  saloon  keeper  was  a  ward  politi- 
cian, the  number  of  votes  which  he  could  thus  control  netted  him 
an  additional  annual  profit.28 

From  every  point  of  view  it  was  advantageous  for  the  saloon 
boss  to  have  at  his  command  the  largest  possible  number  of  men, 
regardless  of  the  needs  of  the  grain  shoveling  business.  Having 
such  a  surplus  of  men  at  all  times  it  was  very  easy  to  exercise 
discrimination  in  giving  out  work,  paying  particular  attention 
to  the  amount  of  money  spent  with  the  saloon  for  drink  and  to 
the  degree  of  subservience  in  politics.  In  many  cases  the  men 
were  forced  to  spend  a  fixed  minimum  of  their  wages  in  the 
saloon  or  were  given  beer  checks  as  a  part  of  their  pay.  While 
the  wages  paid  to  the  gang  were  supposed  to  be  divided  among 
the  members  of  the  gang,  dummies  were  often  carried  on  the 
payrolls  and  the  saloon  boss  pocketed  the  wages. 

In  1882  the  patent  on  the  steam  shovels  expired  and  a  reduc- 
tion of  $.50  per  thousand  bushels  was  made  in  the  price  paid  to 
the  owners  of  the  shovels.27  The  amount  paid  to  the  saloon 
bosses  continued  to  be  $2.00  per  thousand  bushels  for  grain  un- 
loaded from  sail-boats  and  $2.25  for  steam-boats  until  1895.  The 
advantages  accruing  to  the  saloon  bosses  soon  became  so  great 
that  the  rivalry  among  the  various  gangs  resulted  in  rebates  to 
the  vessel  owners  in  return  for  sending  the  vessel  to  the  elevators 
where  such  gangs  worked.  Rebates  were  as  high  as  $.50  per 
thousand  bushels  and  were  deducted  from  the  wages  of  the 
shovelers. 

In  1894  a  disagreement  arose  between  the  vessel  owners  and 
the  elevator  operators  and  the  rate  paid  to  the  owners  of  steam 
shovels  was  cut  $.25  per  thousand  bushels,  the  rate  to  the  shovelers 
to  remain  as  before.  The  saloon  boss  system  was  expensive  to 
the  vessel  owners  in  spite  of  the  occasional  rebates.  Delays  were 
sometimes  suffered  because  of  the  lack  of  responsibility  in  hand- 
ling the  men.  Furthermore,  a  higher  charge  was  made  for  un- 
loading wet  grain  and  in  the  absence  of  responsible  parties  in 
charge  of  the  work  the  vessel  owners  were  often  made  to  pay 
extortionate  rates  on  mere  claim  of  wet  grain  or  have  their  boats 
tied  up.  Hence  in  1895  when  one  saloon  boss  conceived  the  idea 

26  Marine  Review,  Apr.  11,  1895,  p.  7 ;  Marine  Record,  July  27,  1899,  p.  7. 

27  Ibid.,  July  27,  1899,  p.  7. 


263]  GRAIN   HANDLERS  113 

of  driving  out  his  competitors  by  taking  the  contract  for  all 
grain  shoveling  at  Buffalo,  the  vessel  owners  accepted  the  chance 
to  centre  responsibility  and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
granted  a  year's  contract  at  $3.50  per  thousand  bushels  regard- 
less of  the  condition  of  the  grain.28  It  was  understood  that  of 
this  amount,  $1.50  would  be  paid  to  the  owners  of  the  steam 
shovels,  $1.85  to  the  shovelers,  and  $.15  to  the  contractor.  Since 
this  contract  abolished  the  rebate  system,  the  reduction  in  the 
amount  paid  to  the  grain  handlers  was  more  apparent  than  real. 

This  contract  was  more  satisfactory  to  the  vessel  owners  than 
the  previous  system  of  numerous  saloon  bosses.  It  was  hoped 
that  it  would  also  correct  the  abuses  suffered  by  the  men.  The 
contractor  agreed  to  employ  the  same  men  who  had  been  at  work 
in  the  various  gangs ;  to  pay  them  weekly  at  his  office  or,  if  they 
were  at  work  when  the  pay  was  due,  at  the  elevator  where  they 
were  at  work  and  not  in  any  saloon  or  other  place  where  beer  or 
liquor  was  sold;  and  to  pay  the  full  amount  earned  by  the  men 
without  any  deduction  for  any  bill  owed  by  them.29  Neverthe- 
less a  large  surplus  of  men  was  carried  and  polities  and  saloon 
patronage  still  played  a  large  part  in  the  selection  of  men. 

In  1896  the  contract  was  renewed  at  the  same  price.  The  grain 
scoopers'  union  had  asked  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to 
grant  the  union  the  contract  directly  but  the  request  was  re- 
fused. In  1897  the  price  was  reduced  to  $3.35  per  thousand 
bushels,  the  reduction  to  fall  upon  the  owners  of  the  steam 
shovels.  In  1898  a  further  reduction  to  $3.10  per  thousand 
bushels  was  made  to  fall  partly  upon  the  owners  of  the  steam 
shovels,  making  their  rate  $1.20  pe*  thousand  bushels,  while  the 
contractor  was  to  receive  but  $.05  instead  of  the  customary  $.15. 
This  later  reduction  was  accepted  because  of  the  efforts  being 
made  by  the  other  contractors  to  secure  this  contract. 

In  1899  the  grain  unloading  contract  was  granted  to  a  new 
man  at  the  same  price  paid  to  the  former  contractor  in  1898  in 
order  to  show  all  contractors  that  there  was  no  favoritism  and 
hence  to  encourage  future  competition  on  a  more  advantageous 
basis  to  the  vessel  owners.30  It  was  understood  that  of  the  $3.10 
paid  to  the  contractor,  the  steam  shovel  owners  would  receive 

28  Annual  Report  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  1896,  p.  5. 

29  Marine  Review,  Apr.  11,  1895,  p.  7. 
so  Marine  Record,  May  18,  1899,  p.  7. 


114  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON    LAKES  [264 

$1.20,  the  shovelers  $1.85,  and  the  contractor  $.05.  Instead  of 
following  out  this  program  the  contractor  immediately  reduced 
the  wages  of  his  men  to  $.25  per  hour  while  working.  He  con- 
tinued to  pay  the  steam  shovel  owners  $1.20  per  thousand  bushels 
and  retained  the  remainder  of  the  $3.10,  amounting  to  about  $.77 
per  thousand  bushels,  for  himself. 

The  enormous  cut  in  wages  caused  the  grain  shovelers  to 
strike.  There  had  been  a  union  in  the  trade  for  a  number  of 
years,  but  it  had  had  but  little  influence  upon  wages.  The  of- 
ficials of  the  union  and  of  the  parent  union,  the  International 
Longshoremen's  Asociation,  held  a  conference  with  the  grain 
committe  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and  again  asked  that 
the  contract  be  granted  to  the  union.  The  union  offered  to  fur- 
nish bond  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  insure  faithful 
performance  of  their  contract,  in  return  for  a  closed  union  shop 
agreement.  All  differences  were  to  be  submitted  to  a  board  of 
arbitration  to  consist  of  one  employer,  one  representative  of  the 
union,  and  a  third  member  to  be  selected  by  these  two.  The 
paymaster  was  to  be  ' '  absolutely  disassociated  from  either  saloon 
or  political  influence. " 31  In  view  of  the  growing  strength  of 
the  other  unions  on  the  Lakes  at  this  time,  and  the  unprepared- 
ness  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  to  deal  with  these  by  con- 
tract, it  was  thought  best  not  to  set  a  precedent  by  signing  an 
agreement  with  the  grain  shovelers.  The  new  contractor  was  up- 
held and  was  given  enough  more  than  the  contract  price  to  per- 
mit him  to  make  a  satisfactory  agreement  with  the  shovelers. 

On  May  22,  1899,  the  contractor  made  his  agreement  with  the 
union,  granting  closed  union  shop  and  fixing  the  scale  for  the 
season.  In  1900  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  abolished  the 
contract  system  and  hired  a  superintendent  instead.  Through 
this  superintendent  the  association  made  an  agreement  with  the 
scoopers  union  for  the  season  of  1900.32  Again  the  agreement 
called  for  closed  union  shop  conditions  and  fixed  the  wages  at 
$2.00  per  thousand  bushels  unloaded  on  regular  time,  $3.00  per 
thousand  bushels  unloaded  after  10  p.  M.  on  Saturday  night  and 
on  Sunday,  and  $.20  per  hour  for  handling  wet  grain.33  No 

si  Proceedings  International  Longshoremen's  Association,  1899,  p.  10. 

32  Ibid.,  1900,  p.  13. 

33  Under  these  rates  the  highest  amount  received  by  one  scooper  during 
the  year  was  $479.     Marine  "Record,,  Jan.  17,  1901,  p.  19. 


265]  GRAIN   HANDLERS  115 

saloon  or  political  influence  was  to-be  used  either  in  the  selection 
or  the  payment  of  the  men. 

The  boss  scooper  at  each  elevator  was  to  be  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  union  and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  super- 
intendent, or  in  the  event  of  their  disagreement,  by  the  president 
of  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association.  Men  could  be 
discharged  only  for  cause,  the  existence  of  such  cause  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  president  of  the  international  union.34  Trouble 
soon  arose  over  the  selection  of  boss  scoopers  since  the  president 
of  the  local  union  contended  that  the  superintendent  must  make 
his  selection  from  a  list  submitted  by  the  president  of  the  union. 
Upon  appeal  to  the  president  of  the  international  union,  it  was 
decided  that  the  boss  scoopers  must  also  be  known  to  the  super- 
intendent. Other  matters  referred  to  the  international  presi- 
dent recived  prompt  and  satisfactory  attention. 

Yearly  agreements  were  signed  until  1906  when  a  two-year 
agreement  was  granted  at  the  request  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  As- 
sociation.35 No  changes  were  made  meantime  in  the  principles 
of  the  1900  agreement.  Small  adjustments  were  made  in  wages 
in  1903  and  the  changes  were  continued  until  the  close  of  the 
season  of  1907.  Grievances  were  generally  settled  with  little  de- 
lay by  the  Lake  Carriers'  superintendent  and  the  president  of 
the  international  union. 

Although  having  no  grievances  against  the  grain  scoopers' 
union  in  1908,  the  year  of  the  declaration  of  open  shop  on  the 
boats,  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  refused  to  renew  the  1906 
agreement.  This  refusal  was  made  for  the  sake  of  consistency. 
The  grain  superintendent  was  retained  and  he  continued  the 
same  wages  and  conditions  as  during  the  period  of  the  agree- 
ment. In  1911,  at  the  request  of  the  union,  an  agreement  was 
signed  by  the  grain  superintendent,  granting  a  small  increase  in 
wages.  The  union  was  given  a  preferential  union  shop  agree- 
ment which  is  not  different  in  its  operation  from  the  former 
closed  union  shop  agreement.  Such  agreements  have  been  con- 
tinued since  1911  and  although  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association 
superintendent  signs  them  as  an  individual,  the  association  as- 
sumes the  responsibility  for  the  faithful  observance  of  their 
terms. 

34  From  copy  of  agreement. 

ss  Marine  Eeview,  June  7,  1906,  p.  38. 


APPENDIX  C 

WAGE  BARGAINING  IN  THE  LUMBER  CARRYING 
INDUSTRY 

In  the  early  days  of  lumber-carrying  sailing  vessels  on  the 
Lakes,  the  sailors  loaded  and  unloaded  their  boats,  assisted  at 
times  by  workmen  on  shore.  Gradually  this  work  became  a 
separate  occupation  and  a  class  of  longshoremen  or  lumber 
shovers  followed  it  as  a  trade.  The  first  union  of  these  men  was 
formed  in  Chicago  in  1877.36  A  little  later  other  locals  were 
formed  at  the  other  important  lumber  shipping  and  receiving 
ports.  These  unions  continued  an  independent  existence  until 
1892,  though  following  1885  they  assisted  each  other  through 
sympathetic  strikes.  In  fact  an  understanding  which  amounted 
almost  to  a  national  organization  existed  for  the  six  years 
previous  to  the  formation  of  the  national  union.37 

At  this  time  the  lumber  dealers  owned  no  boats  and  there  was 
direct  antagonism  of  interest  between  the  men  who  owned  the 
lumber  and  those  who  carried  it.  This  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  two  associations  of  employers  in  each  port;  one  of  lumber 
dealers  and  the  other  of  lumber  carriers.  Neither  wished  to 
deal  with  the  lumber  loaders  and  unloaders.  The  lumber  car- 
riers' associations  were  formed  to  regulate  freight  rates  and  the 
dealers'  associations  to  regulate  both  freight  rates  and  prices. 
The  carriers  always  tried  to  induce  the  dealers  to  load  and  un- 
load the  cargoes  and  sometimes  succeeded,  but  more  often 
failed.38  In  case  the  dealers  loaded  and  unloaded  the  cargoes, 
yard  men  were  used.  This  involved  the  dealers  in  jurisdictional 
troubles  with  the  lumber  shovers  who  claimed  the  right  to  do 

36  From  original  seal  of  the  union.     Its  name  was  Chicago  Lumber  Vessel 
Unloaders'  Union. 

37  Ms.  minutes  of  Lake  Seamen 's  Union,  passim. 
ss  Marine  Review,  Feb.  12,  1891,  p.  6. 

116 


267]  LUMBER   INDUSTRY  117 

such  work.  Except  when  more  advantageous  rates  could  not  be 
obtained  by  agreeing  to  handle  the  cargoes,  the  dealers  con- 
sidered this  work  a  part  of  lumber  carrying. 

From  1885  to  1892  the  local  associations  of  lumber  carriers 
made  agreements  with  local  unions  of  lumber  shovers  and  after 
1892,  with  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association.39  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  relations  of  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union  to  the 
lumber  carriers  were  but  little  different  from  the  relations  ex- 
isting between  the  seamen  and  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  As- 
sociation 40  except  that  the  lumber  carriers  never  waged  a  war 
of  extermination  upon  the  seamen's  union.  United  resistance 
was  made  to  union  demands  but  the  lumber  carrying  business 
was  relatively  small  and  owners  of  lumber  boats  reaped  the 
benefits  from  the  union  war  conducted  by  the  owners  of  the  ore 
carrying  boats.  In  1891,  before  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners' 
Association  began  its  third  campaign  against  the  Lake  Seamen's 
Union,  and  while  the  union  was  gaining  strength  very  rapidly, 
the  Lake  Michigan  Vessel  Owners'  Association,  which  at  that 
time  contained  a  representative  membership  of  lumber  vessel 
cwncrs,  proposed  an  agreement  to  the  Lake  Seamen's  Union, 
with  a  sliding  scale  to  be  based  upon  the  changes  in  freight 
rates.  The  essoeiation  offered  a  closed  union  shop  agreement 
and  suggested  a  permanent  grievance  committee  to  hear  and  de- 
cide upon  grievances  submitted  to  it.41 

The  union  members  were  suspicious  of  all  friendly  offers  from 
employers  and  refused  to  grant  the  agreement.  In  1894,  how- 
ever, the  union  did  make  an  agreement  with  the  Vessel  Owners 
and  Masters'  Association,  composed  of  nearly  the  same  men  as 
the  Lake  Michigan  Vessel  Owners'  Association.42  At  this  time 
the  lumber  carriers  were  fighting  the  lumber  dealers  for  an  ad- 
vance in  freight  rates  and  needed  the  assistance  of  the  union. 
The  wages  agreed  upon  were  based  upon  a  sliding  scale  of  freight 
rates  so  that  every  increase  of  rates  amounting  to  $.25  per 
thousand  feet  of  lumber  called  for  an  increase  of  $.25  per  day 
in  the  wages  of  seamen.  At  one  time  during  the  season  the 

3»  Proceedings  International  Longshoremen 's  Association,  passim. 
*°  Cf.  supra,  p.  16. 

*l  Marine  Review,  Feb.  19,  1891,  p.  6.  Also  ms.  minutes  and  correspond- 
ence of  Lake  Seamen's  Union. 

42  Ms.  minutes  of  Lake  Seamen  'a  Union. 


118  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [268 

owners  failed  to  receive  an  anticipated  increase  in  rates  and 
asked  the  union  to  tie  up  all  boats  until  the  advance  was  granted. 
This  the  union  assented  to  and  the  advance  was  granted.  Hence 
the  agreement  served  the  purpose  of  the  vessel  owners  during 
that  season  but  they  refused  to  renew  it  for  the  following  season. 
The  following  season  was  dull  and  in  addition  the  union  was  too 
weak  to  offer  much  resistance  to  the  owners. 

No  other  attempts  at  agreement  with  the  seamen  were  made  un- 
til 1898.  When  the  Cleveland  Vessel  Owners'  Association  and 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  amalgamated  in  1892  some  of  the 
lumber  carriers  joined  the  new  Lake  Carriers'  Association  and 
an  increasing  number  gradually  came  in  thereafter.  The  lum- 
ber vessel  owners  never  received  much  attention  in  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association,  however.  In  the  first  place  they  were  never 
numerous  enough  to  have  a  large  vote  and  in  the  second  place 
the  lumber  vessels  were  always  smaller  than  the  ore  carriers  and 
hence  their  owners  were  not  greatly  interested  in  deepening 
channels  and  widening  locks.  They  rather  depended  upon  en- 
joying the  benefits  secured  by  the  ore  carriers  and  increased  the 
size  of  their  own  vessels  only  as  they  secured  larger  cast-offs 
from  the  ore  carriers.  Finally,  the  lumber  carriers  were  always 
most  interested  in  trying  to  regulate  freights,  an  activity  in 
which  the  ore  carriers  were  never  successful.  Occasionally  a 
committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  troubles  of  the  lumber  carriers  but  never  gave  them 
much  relief. 

This  inattention  to  their  interests  resulted  in  a  temporary 
withdrawal  of  many  of  the  lumber  carriers  from  the  Lake  Car- 
riers' Association  and  in  February,  1898,  they  formed  the  Lum- 
ber Carriers'  Association  at  Detroit  and  established  a  scale  of 
freight  rates  for  the  season.43  This  association  was  opposed  by 
the  Lumber  Dealers '  Association  and  by  other  dealers  who  as  in- 
dividuals had  by  this  time  acquired  considerable  lumber  carry- 
ing tonnage.  In  order  to  secure  support  in  enforcing  its  freight 
scale,  overtures  were  made  by  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Association 
to  the  International  Longshoremen's  Association.  An  offer  was 
made  to  the  union  to  grant  a  closed  union  shop  agreement  on 
condition  that  the  union  would  discriminate  against  non-members 

43  Marine  Record,  Feb.  17,  1898,  p.  9. 


269]  LUMBER   INDUSTRY  119 

of  the  association  and  thus  force  outsiders  to  join  it.44  For  the 
two  years  previous  to  this  time  the  union  had  fined  boats  loaded 
by  non-union  men  but  unloaded  by  union  men,  so  that  the  pro- 
posal of  the  Lumber  Carriers  Association  was  looked  upon  with 
favor. 

The  opposition  of  the  lumber  dealers,  a  general  practice  of 
rebating,  and  a  slump  in  shipments  in  July,  1898,  caused  by 
the  temporary  cessation  in  building  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Spanish- American  War,  broke  up  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation and  its  members  returned  to  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion.45 The  severe  lake  storms  of  1898  destroyed  approximately 
one-eighth  of  all  lumber  carrying  tonnage.  The  recovery  from 
the  slump  in  shipments  aided  by  a  tariff  of  $2.00  per  thousand 
feet  on  Canadian  lumber 46  made  the  following  year  one  of  great 
prosperity  for  lumber  carriers.  Without  a  freight  rate  combina- 
tion rates  increased  more  than  100  per  cent  in  some  cases  during 
the  season  of  1899.47 

In  the  meantime  the  unions  had  forced  large  increases  in  wages 
from  the  local  associations  of  lumber  carriers  and  from  individ- 
ual vessel  owners.  In  spite  of  falling  freights  in  1900  the  unions 
were  able  to  maintain  their  wages  at  the  level  of  the  previous 
year.  The  lumber  carriers  were  in  much  the  same  position  as 
the  ore  carriers  were  in  two  years  later.  The  owners  were  un- 
organized and  were  besieged  on  the  one  hand  by  rate-cutting 
shippers  and  on  the  other  by  the  unions.  Beginning  in  the  early 
fall  of  1900  organization  was  again  talked  and  a  preliminary 
meeting  was  arranged  for  January  17,  1901,  to  meet  in  Detroit.48 
Although  meeting  as  a  committee  of  the  Lake  Carriers'  Associa- 
tion, the  conference  resulted  in  the  organization  of  an  indepen- 
dent association  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  labor  and  of 
fixing  freight  rates.  As  in  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  dues 
are  paid  and  voting  power  is  determined  upon  a  per  tonnage 
basis.  The  control  of  the  association  is  vested  in  a  board  of 
managers  of  twelve  members  selected  with  reference  to  their  in- 

**  Marine  Record,  Mar.  3,  1898,  p.  5. 
« Ibid.,  June  9,  1898,  p.  11. 
we  lUd.,  Nov.  10,  1898,  p.  8. 
4T  Ibid.,  Sept.  21,  1899,  p.  10. 
48  Ibid.,  Jan.  3,  1901,  p.  7. 


120  WAGE   BARGAINING   ON   LAKES  [270 

fluence  in  the  association  and  to  geographical  distribution  so  as 
to  have  the  principal  ports  represented. 

Again  an  attempt  was  made  to  deal  with  shippers  on  a  from- 
dock-to-dock  basis,  leaving  loading  and  unloading  troubles  to  the 
shippers.  Failing  in  this  atempt,  agreements  were  entered  into 
with  the  lumber  handling  unions.  Closed  union  shop  agree- 
ments were  granted  to  cover  the  following  questions :  prohibition 
of  restriction  upon  amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  each  man; 
settlement  of  disputes  by  reference  to  a  grievance  committee; 
and  establishing  a  scale  of  wages  at  $.50  per  hour  for  the  season. 
In  order  that  the  unions  might  know  who  were  members  of  the 
association,  a  list  was  furnished  each  local  and  in  addition  each 
vessel  carried  a  certificate  of  membership. 

In  1902  the  agreements  with  the  lumber  shovers  were  con- 
tinued and  in  the  following  year  agreements  were  made  with  the 
seamen,  cooks,  and  firemen.  These  were  the  same  as  the  agree- 
ments made  between  these  unions  and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Asso- 
ciation. A  classified  wage  scale  was  also  granted  to  the  masters 
and  pilots.49  In  dealing  with  the  unions  of  unlicensed  men  on 
the  boats  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Association  followed  the  lead  of 
the  Lake  Carriers'  Association  from  1903  to  1907  inclusive.  In 
fact  the  union  conference  with  the  former  usually  followed  that 
with  the  latter  and  was  merely  an  acceptance  of  its  results. 

In  1904  contracts  were  made  with  the  American  Association 
of  Masters  and  Pilots  and  the  Marine  Engineers'  Benevolent  As- 
sociation. The  former  then  broke  up  during  the  same  year  and 
the  latter  discontinued  making  agreements  with  the  Lumber 
Carriers'  Association.  In  each  case  no  change  was  made  in  the 
wage  classification.  In  1908  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Association 
met  the  unions  of  unlicensed  men  as  usual,  after  the  declaration 
of  open  shop  by  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  but  asked  of 
them  conditions  which  the  unions  were  unwilling  to  grant  so  that 
no  agreements  were  reached.  No  conferences  have  been  held 
since  but  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Association  have  continued  to 
carry  union  men  on  their  boats.  They  still  follow  the  lead  of  the 
Lake  Carriers'  Association  in  the  payment  of  wages.  Other 
conditions  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  captain  of  the  boat  and 
are  generally  satisfactory  to  the  men. 

49  Marine  Eeview,  Jan.  29,  1903,  p.  23. 


271]  LUMBER   INDUSTRY  121 

Agreements  with  the  lumber  shoviers  have  continued  without 
interruption  since  the  Lumber  Carriers'  Association  was  formed 
in  1901.  There  have  been  practically  no  changes  in  the  agree- 
ments except  an  occasional  adjustment  in  wages.  The  lumber 
carrying  business  has  been  a  declining  industry  for  many  years 
so  that  there  is  no  need  for  an  increasing  number  of  men  to 
handle  the  cargoes. 


INDEX 


Accident  insurance,  44,  88 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  32, 

45,  46,  49,  69 
Arbitration,  57,  58,  64,  77,  83,  106, 

114 

Aristocracy  of  labor,  47 
Assembly  rooms,  87,  94 
Barges,  11,  24,  58 
Beer  checks,  112 

Bessemer  fleet:  see  Rockefeller  fleet 
Blacklist,  72,  89:   see  also  Discrim- 
ination 

Boarding  houses,  112 
Bonus,  42,  55  n,  62,  105 
Brown  hoists,  104 
Captains'  committees,  93 
Carnegie  interests,  24,  37,  38 
Character  of  workers,  10,  26,  31,  52, 

79,  81,  96,  105,  109,  111 
Clam  shell,  104 

Cleveland  Civic  Federation,  64,  67 
Cleveland    Vessel    Owners'    Associa- 
tion,   15,    16,   19,   20,   51,   54,    76, 
117,  118 

Closed  non-union  shop,  51,  68  n,  69 
Closed  union  shop,   57,  58,    74,   82, 

105,  114,  117,  118,  120 
Coal  passers,  81,  92 
Conferences,   54-56,   62,   64,    72,   74, 

85,  105,  107 

Cooks'  union,  32,  58,  63,  70,  73,  120 
Coulby,  Harry,  56,  60,  65  n,  69,  74, 

84,  85,  87,  88  n,  89 
Deckhands,  18,  26,  30,  57,  81 
Deserters,  52,  57,  58,  80,  81 
Discharge,  26,  63,  72,  79,  115 
Discharge  books,  88,  89,  95 
Discipline,  43,  78,  80,  94,  108,  109 
Discrimination,    86,    108,    112,    118: 
see  also  Blacklist 


Dock  fences,  76,  84,  108  n. 
Dock  managers,  73,  105,  107 
Drunkenness,  52,  80,  105 
Dummies  on  payroll,  112 
Efficiency,  25,  40,  55  n 
Employment  by  trip,  14,  26,  52,  79 
Engineers'  committees,  93 
Engineers'  unions,  32,  39,  41,  55,  63, 

69,  70,  73,  75,  77,  84,  88,  90,  120 
Farmer  youth,  96 
Firemen's  unions,  31,  43,  54,  58,  61, 

71,  73,  120 

Fleet  engineers'  association,  75 
Food,  26,  52,  79 
Freight  rates,  10,  14,  27,  28,  38,  39, 

51,  76,  79,  116,  118,  119 
Furnace   interests,   23,    65,    75:    see 

also  Carnegie  interests  and  U.  S. 

Steel  Corporation 
Government  licenses,  33,  41,  94 
Grain  handling  methods,  110 
Grain  superintendent,  114 
Grievances  against  firemen,   71,   73, 

80,  82 
Hours  of  labor,  52,  57,  81,  92,  105, 

106:  see  also  Overtime. 
Idle  days  in  port,  52 
Impersonal  management,  59  n,  67  n 
Independent  boat  owners,  23,  39,  45, 

49,  53,  58,  59,  76 
Individualism  of  captains,  66 
Individual   contracts,   41,   55  n,   58, 

62,  64,  66,  70,  75,  84,  86  n,  87, 

88,  108 

Initiation   fee,    74 
Industrial  union,  18,  21,  46,  48,   72 
Jurisdictional   disputes,   47,   49,   55, 

72 

Knights  of  Labor,  16-18,  21,  31,  45 
Labor  turnover,  99 


122 


INDEX 


123 


Lake  Carriers'  Association,  19-21, 
28,  30,  37,  39-41,  43-45,  47,  49,  51, 
53-56,  59-65,  67-78,  82,  83,  85-90, 
92-96,  99-101,  106,  107,  113-115, 
118 

Lake  Carriers'  Beneficial  Federa- 
tion, 44,  47,  54 

Lake  Michigan  Vessel  Owners'  As- 
sociation, 117 

Lake   trades'   council,   45,   47,   48 

Legislation,  16,  20,  92,  101 

Living  conditions,  26,  52,  79,  92,  93, 
101 

Longshoremen,  32,  45,  46,  48,  55,  58, 
72,  73,  81,  104,  114-116,  118 

Loyalty,  44,  95,  109 

Lumber  Carriers'  Association,  54, 
118-121 

Lumber  Dealers'  Association,  118 

Masters,  25,  40,  44 

Masters'  unions,  34,  35,  42,  43,  54, 
58,  59,  62,  64,  66,  67,  120 

Mates,  58,  66,  68,  71,  72,  75,  77,  106 

Mesabi  range,  24 

National  Civic  Federation,  89 

Night  schools,  94 

Open  non-union  shops,  51 

"Open  shop,"   62,   70,   72,   76,  85, 

87,  89,  107,  115 

Ore  handling  methods,  103,  107 
Ore  reserves,  62,  66,  70,  75,  84 
Ore  shipments,  11,  21,  23,  70,  75,  89 
Overtime,  57,  58,  63,  73,  81,  106 
Payment  by  check,  93 
Pittsburg    Steamship    Company,    38, 
39,  41-43,  50,  58-60,  62,  67,  70,  84, 

88,  89,  92,  93,  96 

Police  protection,  21,  57,  64,  76 
Politics,  112,  113,  115 
Porters,  64,  71 
Preferential  union  shop,  117 
Promotion,  26,  66,  96,  108 
Rebates,  112,  113 
Eeferendum,  55,  71,  108 
Rockefeller  fleet,  24,  27,  37-40 
Safety,  53,  90 
Sailboats,  11 
Saloon  boss,  111,  113,  115 


Savings'  plan,  93 

Seamen's  unions,  10,  13,  21,  30,  32, 

34,  43,  46,  54,  55,  63,  70,  72,  73, 

81,   117,  120 
Season  charters,  51,  53 
Service  record,  88 

Shipping  Federation  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, 87 

Shipping  offices,  16,  18,  20,  50 
Ship   Masters'   Association,   35,   87: 

see  also  Masters'  unions 
Size  of  boats,  12,  53 
Southern  Europeans,  96,  109 
Spanish-American  War,  27,  119 
Specialized  skill,  66 
Stability   of   tenure,    78-80,    92,    97, 

99,  106 

State  arbitration  boards,  89 
Steamboats,  11,  12 
Steam   shovel,   110 
Strike  breakers,  41,  46,  65,  71,  84,  90 
Strikes,  41,  44,  57-59,  64,  73,  78,  83, 

85,  88,  90,  100,  104,  106,  114:  see 

also  Sympathetic  strikes 
Surplus  of  men,  94,  95,  100,  112 
Sympathetic  strike,  65,  77  n,  116 
Technical  schools,  96 
Time  studies,  25,  27 
Trade  agreements,  14,  17,  22,  50,  53, 

54,  61,  63,  70,  71,  73-77,  105,  106, 

114,  115,  120,  121 
Treatment  of  men,  26,  52,  79-81 
Union  officials,  80,  81 
U.   S.  Steel  Corporation,   24,  38-40, 

45,  49,  53,  59,  60,  62,  65,  76 
Vessel  Owners'  and  Masters'  Asso- 
ciation, 117 
Wages,  13,  14,  17,  28,  30,  33,  40,  41, 

43,  49,  52,  55-58,  63,  70,  75,  77,  78, 

91,  105,  106,  111,  114,  117,  120: 

see  also  Bonus 

Watch  and  watch,  57,  58,  92 
Welfare  certificate,  87 
Welfare  committee,  92,  101 
Welfare  plan,  68,  87,  90  n,  94,  100: 

see  also  Lake  Carriers'  Beneficial 

Federation 
Women,  64 


